read this article to earn good money

CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE CLICK TO EARN MONEY ONLINE Page semi-protected Money From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search For other uses, see Money (disambiguation). Part of a series on Capitalism Concepts[hide] Business Business cycle Businessperson Capital Capital accumulation Capital markets Capitalist mode of production Company Corporation Competitive markets Economic interventionism Economic surplus Entrepreneurship Fictitious capital Financial market Free price system Free market Goods and services Investor Invisible hand Liberalization Marginalism Money Private property Privatization Profit Rent seeking Supply and demand Surplus value Value Wage labour Economic systems[show] Economic theories[show] Origins[show] Development[show] People[show] Related topics[show] Ideologies[show] Capitalism portal Economics portal Philosophy portal Politics portal vte A sample picture of a fictional ATM card. The largest part of the world's money exists only as accounting numbers which are transferred between financial computers. Various plastic cards and other devices give individual consumers the power to electronically transfer such money to and from their bank accounts, without the use of currency. Money is any item or verifiable record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts in a particular country or socio-economic context.[1][2][3] The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of value and sometimes, a standard of deferred payment.[4][5] Any item or verifiable record that fulfills these functions can be considered as money. Money is historically an emergent market phenomenon establishing a commodity money, but nearly all contemporary money systems are based on fiat money.[4] Fiat money, like any check or note of debt, is without use value as a physical commodity. It derives its value by being declared by a government to be legal tender; that is, it must be accepted as a form of payment within the boundaries of the country, for "all debts, public and private".[6] The money supply of a country consists of currency (banknotes and coins) and, depending on the particular definition used, one or more types of bank money (the balances held in checking accounts, savings accounts, and other types of bank accounts). Bank money, which consists only of records (mostly computerized in modern banking), forms by far the largest part of broad money in developed countries.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Functions 3.1 Medium of exchange 3.2 Measure of value 3.3 Standard of deferred payment 3.4 Store of value 4 Properties 5 Money supply 5.1 Creation of money 5.2 Market liquidity 6 Types 6.1 Commodity 6.2 Representative 6.3 Fiat 6.4 Coinage 6.5 Paper 6.6 Commercial bank 6.7 Electronic or digital 7 Monetary policy 8 Money investment 9 Counterfeit 10 Laundering 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology The word "money" is believed to originate from a temple of Juno, on Capitoline, one of Rome's seven hills. In the ancient world Juno was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located.[10] The name "Juno" may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union", "united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique). In the Western world, a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie, meaning 'in kind'.[11] History Main article: History of money A 640 BC one-third stater electrum coin from Lydia The use of barter-like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago, though there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter.[12] Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economy and debt.[13][14] When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies.[15] Many cultures around the world eventually developed the use of commodity money. The Mesopotamian shekel was a unit of weight, and relied on the mass of something like 160 grains of barley.[16] The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. Societies in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used shell money – often, the shells of the cowry (Cypraea moneta L. or C. annulus L.). According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins.[17] It is thought by modern scholars that these first stamped coins were minted around 650–600 BC.[18] Song Dynasty Jiaozi, the world's earliest paper money The system of commodity money eventually evolved into a system of representative money.[citation needed] This occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks would issue receipts to their depositors – redeemable for the commodity money deposited. Eventually, these receipts became generally accepted as a means of payment and were used as money. Paper money or banknotes were first used in China during the Song dynasty. These banknotes, known as "jiaozi", evolved from promissory notes that had been used since the 7th century. However, they did not displace commodity money, and were used alongside coins. In the 13th century, paper money became known in Europe through the accounts of travelers, such as Marco Polo and William of Rubruck.[19] Marco Polo's account of paper money during the Yuan dynasty is the subject of a chapter of his book, The Travels of Marco Polo, titled "How the Great Kaan Causeth the Bark of Trees, Made Into Something Like Paper, to Pass for Money All Over his Country."[20] Banknotes were first issued in Europe by Stockholms Banco in 1661, and were again also used alongside coins. The gold standard, a monetary system where the medium of exchange are paper notes that are convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold, replaced the use of gold coins as currency in the 17th–19th centuries in Europe. These gold standard notes were made legal tender, and redemption into gold coins was discouraged. By the beginning of the 20th century almost all countries had adopted the gold standard, backing their legal tender notes with fixed amounts of gold. After World War II and the Bretton Woods Conference, most countries adopted fiat currencies that were fixed to the U.S. dollar. The U.S. dollar was in turn fixed to gold. In 1971 the U.S. government suspended the convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold. After this many countries de-pegged their currencies from the U.S. dollar, and most of the world's currencies became unbacked by anything except the governments' fiat of legal tender and the ability to convert the money into goods via payment. According to proponents of modern money theory, fiat money is also backed by taxes. By imposing taxes, states create demand for the currency they issue.[21] Functions Economics Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg A supply and demand diagram, illustrating the effects of an increase in demand Index Outline Category HistoryBranchesClassification History of economics Schools of economics Mainstream economics Heterodox economics Economic methodology Economic theory Political economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics International economics Applied economics Mathematical economics Econometrics JEL classification codes ConceptsTheoryTechniques Economic systems Economic growth Market National accounting Experimental economics Computational economics Game theory Operations research By application Agricultural Behavioral Business Cultural Demographic Development Digitization Ecological Education Engineering Environmental Evolutionary Expeditionary Economic geography Financial Health Economic history Industrial organization Information Institutional Knowledge Labour Law Managerial Monetary Natural resource Organizational Personnel Economic planning Economic policy Public economics Public / Social choice Regional Rural Service Socioeconomics Economic sociology Economic statistics Urban Welfare Welfare economics Lists Economists Publications (journals) Glossary Glossary of economics Emblem-money.svg Business and economics portal vte In Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (1875), William Stanley Jevons famously analyzed money in terms of four functions: a medium of exchange, a common measure of value (or unit of account), a standard of value (or standard of deferred payment), and a store of value. By 1919, Jevons's four functions of money were summarized in the couplet: Money's a matter of functions four, A Medium, a Measure, a Standard, a Store.[22] This couplet would later become widely popular in macroeconomics textbooks.[23] Most modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value, not considering a standard of deferred payment as it is a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others.[4][24][25] There have been many historical disputes regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange is in conflict with its role as a store of value: its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate.[5] Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time. The term "financial capital" is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender. Medium of exchange Main article: Medium of exchange When money is used to intermediate the exchange of goods and services, it is performing a function as a medium of exchange. It thereby avoids the inefficiencies of a barter system, such as the "coincidence of wants" problem. Money's most important usage is as a method for comparing the values of dissimilar objects. Measure of value Main article: Unit of account A unit of account (in economics)[26] is a standard numerical monetary unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt. Money acts as a standard measure and common denomination of trade. It is thus a basis for quoting and bargaining of prices. It is necessary for developing efficient accounting systems. Standard of deferred payment Main article: Standard of deferred payment While standard of deferred payment is distinguished by some texts,[5] particularly older ones, other texts subsume this under other functions.[4][24][25] A "standard of deferred payment" is an accepted way to settle a debt – a unit in which debts are denominated, and the status of money as legal tender, in those jurisdictions which have this concept, states that it may function for the discharge of debts. When debts are denominated in money, the real value of debts may change due to inflation and deflation, and for sovereign and international debts via debasement and devaluation. Store of value Main article: Store of value To act as a store of value, a money must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved – and be predictably usable as a medium of exchange when it is retrieved. The value of the money must also remain stable over time. Some have argued that inflation, by reducing the value of money, diminishes the ability of the money to function as a store of value.[4] Properties To fulfill its various functions, money must have certain properties:[27] Fungibility: its individual units must be capable of mutual substitution (i.e., interchangeability). Durability: able to withstand repeated use. Portability: easily carried and transported. Cognizability: its value must be easily identified. Stability of value: its value should not fluctuate. Money supply Main article: Money supply Money Base, M1 and M2 in the U.S. from 1981 to 2012 Printing paper money at a printing press in Perm In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument that can fulfil the functions of money (detailed above). These financial instruments together are collectively referred to as the money supply of an economy. In other words, the money supply is the number of financial instruments within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. Since the money supply consists of various financial instruments (usually currency, demand deposits and various other types of deposits), the amount of money in an economy is measured by adding together these financial instruments creating a monetary aggregate. Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different ways to measure the money supply, reflected in different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as money. The most commonly used monetary aggregates (or types of money) are conventionally designated M1, M2 and M3. These are successively larger aggregate categories: M1 is currency (coins and bills) plus demand deposits (such as checking accounts); M2 is M1 plus savings accounts and time deposits under $100,000; and M3 is M2 plus larger time deposits and similar institutional accounts. M1 includes only the most liquid financial instruments, and M3 relatively illiquid instruments. The precise definition of M1, M2 etc. may be different in different countries. Another measure of money, M0, is also used; unlike the other measures, it does not represent actual purchasing power by firms and households in the economy.[citation needed] M0 is base money, or the amount of money actually issued by the central bank of a country. It is measured as currency plus deposits of banks and other institutions at the central bank. M0 is also the only money that can satisfy the reserve requirements of commercial banks. Creation of money In current economic systems, money is created by two procedures: Legal tender, or narrow money (M0) is the cash money created by a Central Bank by minting coins and printing banknotes. Bank money, or broad money (M1/M2) is the money created by private banks through the recording of loans as deposits of borrowing clients, with partial support indicated by the cash ratio. Currently, bank money is created as electronic money. In most countries, the majority of money is mostly created as M1/M2 by commercial banks making loans. Contrary to some popular misconceptions, banks do not act simply as intermediaries, lending out deposits that savers place with them, and do not depend on central bank money (M0) to create new loans and deposits.[28] Market liquidity Main article: Market liquidity "Market liquidity" describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter. Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs. There should be no (or minimal) spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money. Types Currently, most modern monetary systems are based on fiat money. However, for most of history, almost all money was commodity money, such as gold and silver coins. As economies developed, commodity money was eventually replaced by representative money, such as the gold standard, as traders found the physical transportation of gold and silver burdensome. Fiat currencies gradually took over in the last hundred years, especially since the breakup of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s. Commodity Main article: Commodity money A 1914 British gold sovereign Many items have been used as commodity money such as naturally scarce precious metals, conch shells, barley, beads etc., as well as many other things that are thought of as having value. Commodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity.[29] Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, Wampum, salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or price system economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as money. Although some gold coins such as the Krugerrand are considered legal tender, there is no record of their face value on either side of the coin. The rationale for this is that emphasis is laid on their direct link to the prevailing value of their fine gold content.[30] American Eagles are imprinted with their gold content and legal tender face value.[31] Representative Main article: Representative money In 1875, the British economist William Stanley Jevons described the money used at the time as "representative money". Representative money is money that consists of token coins, paper money or other physical tokens such as certificates, that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold or silver. The value of representative money stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity that backs it, while not itself being composed of that commodity.[32] Fiat Main article: Fiat money Gold coins are an example of legal tender that are traded for their intrinsic value, rather than their face value. Fiat money or fiat currency is money whose value is not derived from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into a valuable commodity (such as gold). Instead, it has value only by government order (fiat). Usually, the government declares the fiat currency (typically notes and coins from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System in the U.S.) to be legal tender, making it unlawful not to accept the fiat currency as a means of repayment for all debts, public and private.[33][34] Some bullion coins such as the Australian Gold Nugget and American Eagle are legal tender, however, they trade based on the market price of the metal content as a commodity, rather than their legal tender face value (which is usually only a small fraction of their bullion value).[31][35] Fiat money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins) can be accidentally damaged or destroyed. However, fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the U.S. government will replace mutilated Federal Reserve Notes (U.S. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed.[36] By contrast, commodity money which has been lost or destroyed cannot be recovered. Coinage Main article: Coin These factors led to the shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at first silver, then both silver and gold, and at one point there was bronze as well. Now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created a new unit of account, which helped lead to banking. Archimedes' principle provided the next link: coins could now be easily tested for their fine weight of metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see Numismatics). In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver and gold formed three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for midsized transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. This system had been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas. In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest.[citation needed] Thus the overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent. Paper Main article: Banknote Huizi currency, issued in 1160 In premodern China, the need for credit and for circulating a medium that was less of a burden than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as banknotes. This economic phenomenon was a slow and gradual process that took place from the late Tang dynasty (618–907) into the Song dynasty (960–1279). It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began circulating these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally valid and temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi Sheng's movable type printing by the 11th century was the impetus for the massive production of paper money in premodern China. Paper money from different countries At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th–12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar). Innovations introduced by Muslim economists, traders and merchants include the earliest uses of credit,[37] cheques, promissory notes,[38] savings accounts, transactional accounts, loaning, trusts, exchange rates, the transfer of credit and debt,[39] and banking institutions for loans and deposits.[39] Petitioner From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A petitioner is a person who pleads with governmental institution for a legal remedy or a redress of grievances, through use of a petition. Contents 1 In the courts 2 To the government 3 The Whig party 4 See also In the courts The petitioner may seek a legal remedy if the state or another private person has acted unlawfully. In this case, the petitioner, often called a plaintiff, will submit a plea to a court to resolve the dispute. To the government On the other hand, the petitioner may be complaining against the law it to "... make no law... abridging... the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances". A petitioner need not seek a change to an existing law. Often, petitioners speak against (or in support of) legislative proposals as these progress. The Whig party A group of 17th century English politicians became known as Petitioners, due to their support of the Exclusion Bill, a bill which would prevent the succession to the throne of the Catholic James, Duke of York, the heir apparent of King Charles II. After the House of Commons passed the Bill, Charles dissolved Parliament; when a new Parliament was elected shortly afterwards, Charles simply refused to summon it to meet. The Petitioners got their name from the many petitions they sent to Charles urging him to summon Parliament; they were opposed by the Abhorrers, who resisted the Exclusion Bill and were in no hurry to see a pro-Exclusion Bill Parliament meet. In the heat of the dispute, the two factions traded insulting epithets; with the result that the Petitioners became known as the Whigs and their opponents as Tories. See also Law From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about a system of rules. For the social science or theory of law, see Jurisprudence. For a document passed by legislature, see statutory law. For other uses, see Law (disambiguation). "Legal" and "Legal concept" redirect here. For other uses, see Legal (disambiguation). Lady Justice, a goddess symbolising justice who bears a sword – symbolising the coercive power of a tribunal –, scales – representing an objective standard by which competing claims are weighed – and a blindfold indicating that justice should be impartial and meted out objectively, without fear or favor and regardless of money, wealth, power or identity.[1] Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior.[2] Law is a system that regulates and ensures that individuals or a community adhere to the will of the state. State-enforced laws can be made by a collective legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes, by the executive through decrees and regulations, or established by judges through precedent, normally in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. A general distinction can be made between (a) civil law jurisdictions, in which a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates their laws, and (b) common law systems, where judge-made precedent is accepted as binding law. Historically, religious laws played a significant role even in settling of secular matters, and is still used in some religious communities. Islamic Sharia law is the world's most widely used religious law, and is used as the primary legal system in some countries, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia.[3] The adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order and in which the guilty party may be imprisoned or fined. Civil law (not to be confused with civil law jurisdictions above) deals with the resolution of lawsuits (disputes) between individuals or organizations.[4] Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis and sociology. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and justice. Contents 1 Definition 1.1 Mainstream definitions 1.2 Whether it is possible or desirable to define law 2 History 3 Legal theory 3.1 Philosophy 3.2 Positive law and non-positive law discussions 3.3 Economic analysis 3.4 Sociology 4 Legal systems 4.1 Civil law 4.2 Common law and equity 4.3 Religious law 4.3.1 Sharia law 5 Legal institutions 5.1 Judiciary 5.2 Legislature 5.3 Executive 5.4 Military and police 5.5 Bureaucracy 5.6 Legal profession 5.7 Civil society 6 Legal subjects 6.1 International law 6.2 Constitutional and administrative law 6.3 Criminal law 6.4 Contract law 6.5 Tort law 6.6 Property law 6.7 Equity and trusts 6.8 Further disciplines 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Definition Main articles: Definition of law and Analytical jurisprudence Mainstream definitions Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries. The Third New International Dictionary from Merriam-Webster[5] defines law as: "Law is a binding custom or practice of a community; a rule or mode of conduct or action that is prescribed or formally recognized as binding by a supreme controlling authority or is made obligatory by a sanction (as an edict, decree, rescript, order, ordinance, statute, resolution, rule, judicial decision, or usage) made, recognized, or enforced by the controlling authority." The Dictionary of the History of Ideas published by Scribner's in 1973 defined the concept of law accordingly as: "A legal system is the most explicit, institutionalized, and complex mode of regulating human conduct. At the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance."[6] Whether it is possible or desirable to define law There have been several attempts to produce "a universally acceptable definition of law". In 1972, one source indicated that no such definition could be produced.[7] McCoubrey and White said that the question "what is law?" has no simple answer.[8] Glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word "law" depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, "early customary law" and "municipal law" were contexts where the word "law" had two different and irreconcilable meanings.[9] Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word "law" and that it is also equally obvious that the struggle to define that word should not ever be abandoned.[10] It is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word "law" (e.g. "let's forget about generalities and get down to cases").[11] History Main article: Legal history King Hammurabi is revealed the code of laws by the Mesopotamian sun god Shamash, also revered as the god of justice. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization. Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books. It was based on the concept of Ma'at, characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality.[12][13] By the 22nd century BC, the ancient Sumerian ruler Ur-Nammu had formulated the first law code, which consisted of casuistic statements ("if … then ..."). Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists, and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages, including English, Italian, German, and French.[14] The Old Testament dates back to 1280 BC and takes the form of moral imperatives as recommendations for a good society. The small Greek city-state, ancient Athens, from about the 8th century BC was the first society to be based on broad inclusion of its citizenry, excluding women and the slave class. However, Athens had no legal science or single word for "law",[15] relying instead on the three-way distinction between divine law (thémis), human decree (nomos) and custom (díkē).[16] Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy.[17] Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, but its detailed rules were developed by professional jurists and were highly sophisticated.[18][19] Over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire, law was adapted to cope with the changing social situations and underwent major codification under Theodosius II and Justinian I.[20] Although codes were replaced by custom and case law during the Dark Ages, Roman law was rediscovered around the 11th century when medieval legal scholars began to research Roman codes and adapt their concepts. Latin legal maxims (called brocards) were compiled for guidance. In medieval England, royal courts developed a body of precedent which later became the common law. A Europe-wide Law Merchant was formed so that merchants could trade with common standards of practice rather than with the many splintered facets of local laws. The Law Merchant, a precursor to modern commercial law, emphasised the freedom to contract and alienability of property.[21] As nationalism grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Law Merchant was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. The Napoleonic and German Codes became the most influential. In contrast to English common law, which consists of enormous tomes of case law, codes in small books are easy to export and easy for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging.[22] EU law is codified in treaties, but develops through the precedent laid down by the European Court of Justice. The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words. Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law, and have historically had independent schools of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, probably compiled around 100 AD (although it contains older material), and the Manusmriti (c. 100–300 AD) were foundational treatises in India, and comprise texts considered authoritative legal guidance.[23] Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia.[24] This Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was supplanted by the common law when India became part of the British Empire.[25] Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law. The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences.[26] Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the French, but mostly the German Civil Code.[27] This partly reflected Germany's status as a rising power in the late 19th century. Similarly, traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the Qing Dynasty in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law.[28] Today Taiwanese law retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split between Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists, who fled there, and Mao Zedong's communists who won control of the mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the People's Republic of China was heavily influenced by Soviet Socialist law, which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private law rights.[29] Due to rapid industrialisation, today China is undergoing a process of reform, at least in terms of economic, if not social and political, rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a move away from administrative domination.[30] Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the World Trade Organisation.[31] Legal theory Main article: Jurisprudence Philosophy Main article: Philosophy of law "But what, after all, is a law? […] When I say that the object of laws is always general, I mean that law considers subjects en masse and actions in the abstract, and never a particular person or action. […] On this view, we at once see that it can no longer be asked whose business it is to make laws, since they are acts of the general will; nor whether the prince is above the law, since he is a member of the State; nor whether the law can be unjust, since no one is unjust to himself; nor how we can be both free and subject to the laws, since they are but registers of our wills." Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, II, 6.[32] The philosophy of law is commonly known as jurisprudence. Normative jurisprudence asks "what should law be?", while analytic jurisprudence asks "what is law?" John Austin's utilitarian answer was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience".[33] Natural lawyers on the other side, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, argue that law reflects essentially moral and unchangeable laws of nature. The concept of "natural law" emerged in ancient Greek philosophy concurrently and in connection with the notion of justice, and re-entered the mainstream of Western culture through the writings of Thomas Aquinas, notably his Treatise on Law. Hugo Grotius, the founder of a purely rationalistic system of natural law, argued that law arises from both a social impulse—as Aristotle had indicated—and reason.[34] Immanuel Kant believed a moral imperative requires laws "be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws of nature".[35] Jeremy Bentham and his student Austin, following David Hume, believed that this conflated the "is" and what "ought to be" problem. Bentham and Austin argued for law's positivism; that real law is entirely separate from "morality".[36] Kant was also criticised by Friedrich Nietzsche, who rejected the principle of equality, and believed that law emanates from the will to power, and cannot be labelled as "moral" or "immoral".[37][38][39] In 1934, the Austrian philosopher Hans Kelsen continued the positivist tradition in his book the Pure Theory of Law.[40] Kelsen believed that although law is separate from morality, it is endowed with "normativity", meaning we ought to obey it. While laws are positive "is" statements (e.g. the fine for reversing on a highway is €500); law tells us what we "should" do. Thus, each legal system can be hypothesised to have a basic norm (Grundnorm) instructing us to obey. Kelsen's major opponent, Carl Schmitt, rejected both positivism and the idea of the rule of law because he did not accept the primacy of abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions.[41] Therefore, Schmitt advocated a jurisprudence of the exception (state of emergency), which denied that legal norms could encompass all of political experience.[42] Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the 20th century. Later in the 20th century, H. L. A. Hart attacked Austin for his simplifications and Kelsen for his fictions in The Concept of Law.[43] Hart argued law is a system of rules, divided into primary (rules of conduct) and secondary ones (rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules). Secondary rules are further divided into rules of adjudication (to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (allowing laws to be varied) and the rule of recognition (allowing laws to be identified as valid). Two of Hart's students continued the debate: In his book Law's Empire, Ronald Dworkin attacked Hart and the positivists for their refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that law is an "interpretive concept",[44] that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their constitutional traditions. Joseph Raz, on the other hand, defended the positivist outlook and criticised Hart's "soft social thesis" approach in The Authority of Law.[45] Raz argues that law is authority, identifiable purely through social sources and without reference to moral reasoning. In his view, any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative instruments in mediation are best left to sociology, rather than jurisprudence.[46] Positive law and non-positive law discussions One definition is that law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behaviour.[2] In The Concept of Law Hart argued law is a "system of rules";[47] Austin said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction";[33] Dworkin describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve justice in his text titled Law's Empire;[48] and Raz argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests.[45] Holmes said "The prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by the law."[49] In his Treatise on Law Aquinas argues that law is a rational ordering of things which concern the common good that is promulgated by whoever is charged with the care of the community.[50] This definition has both positivist and naturalist elements.[51] Economic analysis Main article: Law and economics In the 18th century Adam Smith presented a philosophical foundation for explaining the relationship between law and economics.[52] The discipline arose partly out of a critique of trade unions and U.S. antitrust law. The most influential proponents, such as Richard Posner and Oliver Williamson and the so-called Chicago School of economists and lawyers including Milton Friedman and Gary Becker, are generally advocates of deregulation and privatisation, and are hostile to state regulation or what they see as restrictions on the operation of free markets.[53] Richard Posner, one of the Chicago School, runs a blog with Bank of Sweden Prize winning economist Gary Becker.[54] The most prominent economic analyst of law is 1991 Nobel Prize winner Ronald Coase, whose first major article, The Nature of the Firm (1937), argued that the reason for the existence of firms (companies, partnerships, etc.) is the existence of transaction costs.[55] Rational individuals trade through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions mean that using corporations to produce things is more cost-effective. His second major article, The Problem of Social Cost (1960), argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would bargain with one another to create the same allocation of resources, regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes.[56] Coase used the example of a nuisance case named Sturges v Bridgman, where a noisy sweetmaker and a quiet doctor were neighbours and went to court to see who should have to move.[57] Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweetmaker had to stop using his machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain about who moves that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of transaction costs may prevent this.[58] So the law ought to pre-empt what would happen, and be guided by the most efficient solution. The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe.[59] Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market, by analysing the costs of action.[60] Sociology Main article: Sociology of law Sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with society and overlaps with jurisprudence, philosophy of law, social theory and more specialised subjects such as criminology.[61] The institutions of social construction, social norms, dispute processing and legal culture are key areas for inquiry in this knowledge field. Sociology of law is sometimes seen as a sub-discipline of sociology, but its ties to the academic discipline of law are equally strong, and it is best seen as a transdisciplinary and multidisciplinary study focused on the theorisation and empirical study of legal practices and experiences as social phenomena. In the United States the field is usually called law and society studies; in Europe it is more often referred to as socio-legal studies. At first, jurists and legal philosophers were suspicious of sociology of law. Kelsen attacked one of its founders, Eugen Ehrlich, who sought to make clear the differences and connections between positive law, which lawyers learn and apply, and other forms of 'law' or social norms that regulate everyday life, generally preventing conflicts from reaching barristers and courts.[62] Contemporary research in sociology of law is much concerned with the way that law is developing outside discrete state jurisdictions, being produced through social interaction in many different kinds of social arenas, and acquiring a diversity of sources of (often competing or conflicting) authority in communal networks existing sometimes within nation states but increasingly also transnationally.[63] Max Weber in 1917, Weber began his career as a lawyer, and is regarded as one of the founders of sociology and sociology of law. Around 1900 Max Weber defined his "scientific" approach to law, identifying the "legal rational form" as a type of domination, not attributable to personal authority but to the authority of abstract norms.[64] Formal legal rationality was his term for the key characteristic of the kind of coherent and calculable law that was a precondition for modern political developments and the modern bureaucratic state. Weber saw this law as having developed in parallel with the growth of capitalism.[61] Another leading sociologist, Émile Durkheim, wrote in his classic work The Division of Labour in Society that as society becomes more complex, the body of civil law concerned primarily with restitution and compensation grows at the expense of criminal laws and penal sanctions.[65] Other notable early legal sociologists included Hugo Sinzheimer, Theodor Geiger, Georges Gurvitch and Leon Petrażycki in Europe, and William Graham Sumner in the U.S.[66][67] Legal systems Main article: List of national legal systems In general, legal systems can be split between civil law and common law systems.[68] The term "civil law" referring to a legal system should not be confused with "civil law" as a group of legal subjects distinct from criminal or public law. A third type of legal system—accepted by some countries without separation of church and state—is religious law, based on scriptures. The specific system that a country is ruled by is often determined by its history, connections with other countries, or its adherence to international standards. The sources that jurisdictions adopt as authoritatively binding are the defining features of any legal system. Yet classification is a matter of form rather than substance, since similar rules often prevail. Civil law Main article: Civil law (legal system) First page of the 1804 edition of the Napoleonic Code. Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources recognised as authoritative are, primarily, legislation—especially codifications in constitutions or statutes passed by government—and custom.[69] Codifications date back millennia, with one early example being the Babylonian Codex Hammurabi. Modern civil law systems essentially derive from the legal practice of the 6th-century Eastern Roman Empire whose texts were rediscovered by late medieval Western Europe. Roman law in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire was heavily procedural, and lacked a professional legal class.[70] Instead a lay magistrate, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate. Decisions were not published in any systematic way, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised.[71] Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the State, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. From 529–534 AD the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I codified and consolidated Roman law up until that point, so that what remained was one-twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before.[72] This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before."[73] The Justinian Code remained in force in the East until the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Western Europe, meanwhile, relied on a mix of the Theodosian Code and Germanic customary law until the Justinian Code was rediscovered in the 11th century, and scholars at the University of Bologna used it to interpret their own laws.[74] Civil law codifications based closely on Roman law, alongside some influences from religious laws such as canon law, continued to spread throughout Europe until the Enlightenment; then, in the 19th century, both France, with the Code Civil, and Germany, with the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, modernised their legal codes. Both these codes influenced heavily not only the law systems of the countries in continental Europe (e.g. Greece), but also the Japanese and Korean legal traditions.[75][76] Today, countries that have civil law systems range from Russia and China to most of Central and Latin America.[77] With the exception of Louisiana's Civil Code, the United States follows the common law system described below. Common law and equity Main article: Common law King John of England signs Magna Carta In common law legal systems, decisions by courts are explicitly acknowledged as "law" on equal footing with statutes adopted through the legislative process and with regulations issued by the executive branch. The "doctrine of precedent", or stare decisis (Latin for "to stand by decisions") means that decisions by higher courts bind lower courts, and future decisions of the same court, to assure that similar cases reach similar results. In contrast, in "civil law" systems, legislative statutes are typically more detailed, and judicial decisions are shorter and less detailed, because the judge or barrister is only writing to decide the single case, rather than to set out reasoning that will guide future courts. Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the British Empire (except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec). In medieval England, the Norman conquest the law varied-shire-to-shire, based on disparate tribal customs. The concept of a "common law" developed during the reign of Henry II during the late 12th century, when Henry appointed judges that had authority to create an institutionalized and unified system of law "common" to the country. The next major step in the evolution of the common law came when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great charter" or Magna Carta of 1215 also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at "a certain place" rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country.[78] A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law-making under this system, and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralized. In 1297, for instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the English Court of Common Pleas had five.[79] This powerful and tight-knit judiciary gave rise to a systematized process of developing common law.[80] However, the system became overly systematized—overly rigid and inflexible. As a result, as time went on, increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override the common law, and on the King's behalf the Lord Chancellor gave judgment to do what was equitable in a case. From the time of Sir Thomas More, the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord Chancellor, a systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its own Court of Chancery. At first, equity was often criticized as erratic, that it varied according to the length of the Chancellor's foot.[81] Over time, courts of equity developed solid principles, especially under Lord Eldon.[82] In the 19th century in England, and in 1937 in the U.S., the two systems were merged. In developing the common law, academic writings have always played an important part, both to collect overarching principles from dispersed case law, and to argue for change. William Blackstone, from around 1760, was the first scholar to collect, describe, and teach the common law.[83] But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.[84] Religious law Main article: Religious law Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts. Examples include the Jewish Halakha and Islamic Sharia—both of which translate as the "path to follow"—while Christian canon law also survives in some church communities. Often the implication of religion for law is unalterability, because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments.[citation needed] However a thorough and detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration. For instance, the Quran has some law, and it acts as a source of further law through interpretation,[85] Qiyas (reasoning by analogy), Ijma (consensus) and precedent. This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as Sharia and Fiqh respectively. Another example is the Torah or Old Testament, in the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of Jewish law, which some Israeli communities choose to use. The Halakha is a code of Jewish law which summarises some of the Talmud's interpretations. Nevertheless, Israeli law allows litigants to use religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in use by members of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. A trial in the Ottoman Empire, 1879, when religious law applied under the Mecelle Sharia law Main article: Sharia Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the Muslim world in a non-codified form, with the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code in the 19th century being a first attempt at codifying elements of Sharia law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after country, to bring Sharia law more into line with modern conditions and conceptions.[86][87] In modern times, the legal systems of many Muslim countries draw upon both civil and common law traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. The constitutions of certain Muslim states, such as Egypt and Afghanistan, recognise Islam as the religion of the state, obliging legislature to adhere to Sharia.[88] Saudi Arabia recognises Quran as its constitution, and is governed on the basis of Islamic law.[89] Iran has also witnessed a reiteration of Islamic law into its legal system after 1979.[90] During the last few decades, one of the fundamental features of the movement of Islamic resurgence has been the call to restore the Sharia, which has generated a vast amount of literature and affected world politics.[91] Legal institutions It is a real unity of them all in one and the same person, made by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner as if every man should say to every man: I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou givest up, thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, XVII The main institutions of law in industrialised countries are independent courts, representative parliaments, an accountable executive, the military and police, bureaucratic organisation, the legal profession and civil society itself. John Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, and Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws, advocated for a separation of powers between the political, legislature and executive bodies.[92] Their principle was that no person should be able to usurp all powers of the state, in contrast to the absolutist theory of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan.[93] Max Weber and others reshaped thinking on the extension of state. Modern military, policing and bureaucratic power over ordinary citizens' daily lives pose special problems for accountability that earlier writers such as Locke or Montesquieu could not have foreseen. The custom and practice of the legal profession is an important part of people's access to justice, whilst civil society is a term used to refer to the social institutions, communities and partnerships that form law's political basis. Judiciary Main article: Judiciary A judiciary is a number of judges mediating disputes to determine outcome. Most countries have systems of appeal courts, answering up to a supreme legal authority. In the United States, this authority is the Supreme Court;[94] in Australia, the High Court; in the UK, the Supreme Court;[95] in Germany, the Bundesverfassungsgericht; and in France, the Cour de Cassation.[96][97] For most European countries the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg can overrule national law, when EU law is relevant. The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg allows citizens of the Council of Europe member states to bring cases relating to human rights issues before it.[98] The judges of the International Court of Justice in the Hague Some countries allow their highest judicial authority to overrule legislation they determine to be unconstitutional. For example, in Brown v. Board of Education, the United States Supreme Court nullified many state statutes that had established racially segregated schools, finding such statutes to be incompatible with the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.[99] A judiciary is theoretically bound by the constitution, just as all other government bodies are. In most countries judges may only interpret the constitution and all other laws. But in common law countries, where matters are not constitutional, the judiciary may also create law under the doctrine of precedent. The UK, Finland and New Zealand assert the ideal of parliamentary sovereignty, whereby the unelected judiciary may not overturn law passed by a democratic legislature.[100] In communist states, such as China, the courts are often regarded as parts of the executive, or subservient to the legislature; governmental institutions and actors exert thus various forms of influence on the judiciary.[101] In Muslim countries, courts often examine whether state laws adhere to the Sharia: the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt may invalidate such laws,[102] and in Iran the Guardian Council ensures the compatibility of the legislation with the "criteria of Islam".[102][103] Legislature Main article: Legislature The debating chamber of the European Parliament Prominent examples of legislatures are the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow, the Parlamento Italiano in Rome and the Assemblée nationale in Paris. By the principle of representative government people vote for politicians to carry out their wishes. Although countries like Israel, Greece, Sweden and China are unicameral, most countries are bicameral, meaning they have two separately appointed legislative houses.[104] In the 'lower house' politicians are elected to represent smaller constituencies. The 'upper house' is usually elected to represent states in a federal system (as in Australia, Germany or the United States) or different voting configuration in a unitary system (as in France). In the UK the upper house is appointed by the government as a house of review. One criticism of bicameral systems with two elected chambers is that the upper and lower houses may simply mirror one another. The traditional justification of bicameralism is that an upper chamber acts as a house of review. This can minimise arbitrariness and injustice in governmental action.[104] To pass legislation, a majority of the members of a legislature must vote for a bill (proposed law) in each house. Normally there will be several readings and amendments proposed by the different political factions. If a country has an entrenched constitution, a special majority for changes to the constitution may be required, making changes to the law more difficult. A government usually leads the process, which can be formed from Members of Parliament (e.g. the UK or Germany). However, in a presidential system, the government is usually formed by an executive and his or her appointed cabinet officials (e.g. the United States or Brazil).[105] Executive Main article: Executive (government) The G20 meetings are composed of representatives of each country's executive branch. The executive in a legal system serves as the centre of political authority of the State. In a parliamentary system, as with Britain, Italy, Germany, India, and Japan, the executive is known as the cabinet, and composed of members of the legislature. The executive is led by the head of government, whose office holds power under the confidence of the legislature. Because popular elections appoint political parties to govern, the leader of a party can change in between elections.[106] The head of state is apart from the executive, and symbolically enacts laws and acts as representative of the nation. Examples include the President of Germany (appointed by members of federal and state legislatures), the Queen of the United Kingdom (an hereditary office), and the President of Austria (elected by popular vote). The other important model is the presidential system, found in the United States and in Brazil. In presidential systems, the executive acts as both head of state and head of government, and has power to appoint an unelected cabinet. Under a presidential system, the executive branch is separate from the legislature to which it is not accountable.[106][107] Although the role of the executive varies from country to country, usually it will propose the majority of legislation, and propose government agenda. In presidential systems, the executive often has the power to veto legislation. Most executives in both systems are responsible for foreign relations, the military and police, and the bureaucracy. Ministers or other officials head a country's public offices, such as a foreign ministry or defence ministry. The election of a different executive is therefore capable of revolutionising an entire country's approach to government. Military and police Main articles: Military and Police U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers While military organisations have existed as long as government itself, the idea of a standing police force is a relatively modern concept. For example, Medieval England's system of traveling criminal courts, or assizes, used show trials and public executions to instill communities with fear to maintain control.[108] The first modern police were probably those in 17th-century Paris, in the court of Louis XIV,[109] although the Paris Prefecture of Police claim they were the world's first uniformed policemen.[110] Max Weber famously argued that the state is that which controls the monopoly on the legitimate use of force.[111][112] The military and police carry out enforcement at the request of the government or the courts. The term failed state refers to states that cannot implement or enforce policies; their police and military no longer control security and order and society moves into anarchy, the absence of government.[113] Bureaucracy Main article: Bureaucracy The United Nations' New York headquarters houses civil servants that serve its 193 member states. The etymology of "bureaucracy" derives from the French word for "office" (bureau) and the Ancient Greek for word "power" (kratos).[114] Like the military and police, a legal system's government servants and bodies that make up its bureaucracy carry out the directives of the executive. One of the earliest references to the concept was made by Baron de Grimm, a German author who lived in France. In 1765 he wrote, The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist.[115] Cynicism over "officialdom" is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to private enterprise motivated by profit.[116] In fact private companies, especially large ones, also have bureaucracies.[117] Negative perceptions of "red tape" aside, public services such as schooling, health care, policing or public transport are considered a crucial state function making public bureaucratic action the locus of government power.[117] Writing in the early 20th century, Max Weber believed that a definitive feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic support.[118] Weber wrote that the typical characteristics of modern bureaucracy are that officials define its mission, the scope of work is bound by rules, and management is composed of career experts who manage top down, communicating through writing and binding public servants' discretion with rules.[119] Legal profession Main article: Legal profession In civil law systems such as those of Italy, France, Germany, Spain and Greece, there is a distinct category of notary, a legally trained public official, compensated by the parties to a transaction.[120] This is a 16th-century painting of such a notary by Flemish painter Quentin Massys. A corollary of the rule of law is the existence of a legal profession sufficiently autonomous to invoke the authority of the independent judiciary; the right to assistance of a barrister in a court proceeding emanates from this corollary—in England the function of barrister or advocate is distinguished from legal counselor.[121] As the European Court of Human Rights has stated, the law should be adequately accessible to everyone and people should be able to foresee how the law affects them.[122] In order to maintain professionalism, the practice of law is typically overseen by either a government or independent regulating body such as a bar association, bar council or law society. Modern lawyers achieve distinct professional identity through specified legal procedures (e.g. successfully passing a qualifying examination), are required by law to have a special qualification (a legal education earning the student a Bachelor of Laws, a Bachelor of Civil Law, or a Juris Doctor degree. Higher academic degrees may also be pursued. Examples include a Master of Laws, a Master of Legal Studies, a Bar Professional Training Course or a Doctor of Laws.), and are constituted in office by legal forms of appointment (being admitted to the bar). There are few titles of respect to signify famous lawyers, such as Esquire, to indicate barristers of greater dignity,[123][124] and Doctor of law, to indicate a person who obtained a PhD in Law. Many Muslim countries have developed similar rules about legal education and the legal profession, but some still allow lawyers with training in traditional Islamic law to practice law before personal status law courts.[125] In China and other developing countries there are not sufficient professionally trained people to staff the existing judicial systems, and, accordingly, formal standards are more relaxed.[126] Once accredited, a lawyer will often work in a law firm, in a chambers as a sole practitioner, in a government post or in a private corporation as an internal counsel. In addition a lawyer may become a legal researcher who provides on-demand legal research through a library, a commercial service or freelance work. Many people trained in law put their skills to use outside the legal field entirely.[127] Significant to the practice of law in the common law tradition is the legal research to determine the current state of the law. This usually entails exploring case-law reports, legal periodicals and legislation. Law practice also involves drafting documents such as court pleadings, persuasive briefs, contracts, or wills and trusts. Negotiation and dispute resolution skills (including ADR techniques) are also important to legal practice, depending on the field.[127] Civil society Main article: Civil society A march in Washington D.C. during the Civil Rights Movement in 1963 The Classical republican concept of "civil society" dates back to Hobbes and Locke.[128] Locke saw civil society as people who have "a common established law and judicature to appeal to, with authority to decide controversies between them."[129] German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel distinguished the "state" from "civil society" (bürgerliche Gesellschaft) in Elements of the Philosophy of Right.[130] Hegel believed that civil society and the state were polar opposites, within the scheme of his dialectic theory of history. The modern dipole state–civil society was reproduced in the theories of Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx.[131][132] Nowadays in post-modern theory civil society is necessarily a source of law, by being the basis from which people form opinions and lobby for what they believe law should be. As Australian barrister and author Geoffrey Robertson QC wrote of international law, … one of its primary modern sources is found in the responses of ordinary men and women, and of the non-governmental organizations which many of them support, to the human rights abuses they see on the television screen in their living rooms.[133] Freedom of speech, freedom of association and many other individual rights allow people to gather, discuss, criticise and hold to account their governments, from which the basis of a deliberative democracy is formed. The more people are involved with, concerned by and capable of changing how political power is exercised over their lives, the more acceptable and legitimate the law becomes to the people. The most familiar institutions of civil society include economic markets, profit-oriented firms, families, trade unions, hospitals, universities, schools, charities, debating clubs, non-governmental organisations, neighbourhoods, churches, and religious associations.[134] Legal subjects All legal systems deal with the same basic issues, but jurisdictions categorise and identify its legal subjects in different ways. A common distinction is that between "public law" (a term related closely to the state, and including constitutional, administrative and criminal law), and "private law" (which covers contract, tort and property).[135] In civil law systems, contract and tort fall under a general law of obligations, while trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or international conventions. International, constitutional and administrative law, criminal law, contract, tort, property law and trusts are regarded as the "traditional core subjects",[136] although there are many further disciplines. International law Main articles: Public international law, Conflict of laws, and European Union law Providing a constitution for public international law, the United Nations system was agreed during World War II. The Italian lawyer Sir Alberico Gentili, the Father of international law.[137] International law can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations. Public international law concerns relationships between sovereign nations. The sources for public international law development are custom, practice and treaties between sovereign nations, such as the Geneva Conventions. Public international law can be formed by international organisations, such as the United Nations (which was established after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II),[138] the International Labour Organisation, the World Trade Organisation, or the International Monetary Fund. Public international law has a special status as law because there is no international police force, and courts (e.g. the International Court of Justice as the primary UN judicial organ) lack the capacity to penalise disobedience.[139] However, a few bodies, such as the WTO, have effective systems of binding arbitration and dispute resolution backed up by trade sanctions.[140] Conflict of laws (or "private international law" in civil law countries) concerns which jurisdiction a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction's law should be applied. Today, businesses are increasingly capable of shifting capital and labour supply chains across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses, making the question of which country has jurisdiction even more pressing. Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the New York Convention 1958.[141] European Union law is the first and, so far, only example of an internationally accepted legal system other than the UN and the World Trade Organisation. Given the trend of increasing global economic integration, many regional agreements—especially the Union of South American Nations—are on track to follow the same model. In the EU, sovereign nations have gathered their authority in a system of courts and political institutions. These institutions are allowed the ability to enforce legal norms both against or for member states and citizens in a manner which is not possible through public international law.[142] As the European Court of Justice said in the 1960s, European Union law constitutes "a new legal order of international law" for the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states.[143] Constitutional and administrative law Main articles: Constitutional law and Administrative law The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single codified constitution with a bill of rights. A few, like the United Kingdom, have no such document. A "constitution" is simply those laws which constitute the body politic, from statute, case law and convention. A case named Entick v Carrington[144] illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. Mr Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington. When Mr Entick complained in court, Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax, was valid authority. However, there was no written statutory provision or court authority. The leading judge, Lord Camden, stated that, The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole … If no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment.[145] The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by John Locke, holds that the individual can do anything except that which is forbidden by law, and the state may do nothing except that which is authorised by law.[146][147] Administrative law is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account. People can sue an agency, local council, public service, or government ministry for judicial review of actions or decisions, to ensure that they comply with the law, and that the government entity observed required procedure. The first specialist administrative court was the Conseil d'État set up in 1799, as Napoleon assumed power in France.[148] Criminal law Main article: Criminal law Criminal law, also known as penal law, pertains to crimes and punishment.[149] It thus regulates the definition of and penalties for offences found to have a sufficiently deleterious social impact but, in itself, makes no moral judgment on an offender nor imposes restrictions on society that physically prevent people from committing a crime in the first place.[150] Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of criminal procedure.[151] The paradigm case of a crime lies in the proof, beyond reasonable doubt, that a person is guilty of two things. First, the accused must commit an act which is deemed by society to be criminal, or actus reus (guilty act).[152] Second, the accused must have the requisite malicious intent to do a criminal act, or mens rea (guilty mind). However, for so called "strict liability" crimes, an actus reus is enough.[153] Criminal systems of the civil law tradition distinguish between intention in the broad sense (dolus directus and dolus eventualis), and negligence. Negligence does not carry criminal responsibility unless a particular crime provides for its punishment.[154][155] A depiction of a 17th-century criminal trial, for witchcraft in Salem Examples of crimes include murder, assault, fraud and theft. In exceptional circumstances defences can apply to specific acts, such as killing in self defence, or pleading insanity. Another example is in the 19th-century English case of R v Dudley and Stephens, which tested a defence of "necessity". The Mignonette, sailing from Southampton to Sydney, sank. Three crew members and Richard Parker, a 17-year-old cabin boy, were stranded on a raft. They were starving and the cabin boy was close to death. Driven to extreme hunger, the crew killed and ate the cabin boy. The crew survived and were rescued, but put on trial for murder. They argued it was necessary to kill the cabin boy to preserve their own lives. Lord Coleridge, expressing immense disapproval, ruled, "to preserve one's life is generally speaking a duty, but it may be the plainest and the highest duty to sacrifice it." The men were sentenced to hang, but public opinion was overwhelmingly supportive of the crew's right to preserve their own lives. In the end, the Crown commuted their sentences to six months in jail.[156] Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as well.[150] The state, usually with the help of police, takes the lead in prosecution, which is why in common law countries cases are cited as "The People v ..." or "R (for Rex or Regina) v ...". Also, lay juries are often used to determine the guilt of defendants on points of fact: juries cannot change legal rules. Some developed countries still condone capital punishment for criminal activity, but the normal punishment for a crime will be imprisonment, fines, state supervision (such as probation), or community service. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, especially with respect to sentencing, legal research, legislation, and rehabilitation.[157] On the international field, 111 countries are members of the International Criminal Court, which was established to try people for crimes against humanity.[158] Contract law Main article: Contract The famous Carbolic Smoke Ball advertisement to cure influenza was held to be a unilateral contract Contract law concerns enforceable promises, and can be summed up in the Latin phrase pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept).[159] In common law jurisdictions, three key elements to the creation of a contract are necessary: offer and acceptance, consideration and the intention to create legal relations. In Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company a medical firm advertised that its new wonder drug, the smokeball, would cure people's flu, and if it did not, the buyers would get £100. Many people sued for their £100 when the drug did not work. Fearing bankruptcy, Carbolic argued the advert was not to be taken as a serious, legally binding offer. It was an invitation to treat, mere puffery, a gimmick. But the Court of Appeal held that to a reasonable man Carbolic had made a serious offer, accentuated by their reassuring statement, "£1000 is deposited". Equally, people had given good consideration for the offer by going to the "distinct inconvenience" of using a faulty product. "Read the advertisement how you will, and twist it about as you will", said Lord Justice Lindley, "here is a distinct promise expressed in language which is perfectly unmistakable".[160] "Consideration" indicates the fact that all parties to a contract have exchanged something of value. Some common law systems, including Australia, are moving away from the idea of consideration as a requirement. The idea of estoppel or culpa in contrahendo, can be used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations.[161] In civil law jurisdictions, consideration is not required for a contract to be binding.[162] In France, an ordinary contract is said to form simply on the basis of a "meeting of the minds" or a "concurrence of wills". Germany has a special approach to contracts, which ties into property law. Their 'abstraction principle' (Abstraktionsprinzip) means that the personal obligation of contract forms separately from the title of property being conferred. When contracts are invalidated for some reason (e.g. a car buyer is so drunk that he lacks legal capacity to contract)[163] the contractual obligation to pay can be invalidated separately from the proprietary title of the car. Unjust enrichment law, rather than contract law, is then used to restore title to the rightful owner.[164] Tort law Main article: Tort The "McLibel case" two were involved in the longest-running case in UK history for publishing a pamphlet criticising McDonald's restaurants. Torts, sometimes called delicts, are civil wrongs. To have acted tortiously, one must have breached a duty to another person, or infringed some pre-existing legal right. A simple example might be accidentally hitting someone with a cricket ball.[165] Under the law of negligence, the most common form of tort, the injured party could potentially claim compensation for their injuries from the party responsible. The principles of negligence are illustrated by Donoghue v Stevenson.[166] A friend of Mrs Donoghue ordered an opaque bottle of ginger beer (intended for the consumption of Mrs Donoghue) in a café in Paisley. Having consumed half of it, Mrs Donoghue poured the remainder into a tumbler. The decomposing remains of a snail floated out. She claimed to have suffered from shock, fell ill with gastroenteritis and sued the manufacturer for carelessly allowing the drink to be contaminated. The House of Lords decided that the manufacturer was liable for Mrs Donoghue's illness. Lord Atkin took a distinctly moral approach, and said, The liability for negligence … is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay … The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour.[167] This became the basis for the four principles of negligence: (1) Mr Stevenson owed Mrs Donoghue a duty of care to provide safe drinks (2) he breached his duty of care (3) the harm would not have occurred but for his breach and (4) his act was the proximate cause of her harm.[166] Another example of tort might be a neighbour making excessively loud noises with machinery on his property.[57] Under a nuisance claim the noise could be stopped. Torts can also involve intentional acts, such as assault, battery or trespass. A better known tort is defamation, which occurs, for example, when a newspaper makes unsupportable allegations that damage a politician's reputation.[168] More infamous are economic torts, which form the basis of labour law in some countries by making trade unions liable for strikes,[169] when statute does not provide immunity.[170] Property law Main article: Property law A painting of the South Sea Bubble, one of the world's first ever speculations and crashes, led to strict regulation on share trading.[171] Property law governs ownership and possession. Real property, sometimes called 'real estate', refers to ownership of land and things attached to it.[172] Personal property, refers to everything else; movable objects, such as computers, cars, jewelry or intangible rights, such as stocks and shares. A right in rem is a right to a specific piece of property, contrasting to a right in personam which allows compensation for a loss, but not a particular thing back. Land law forms the basis for most kinds of property law, and is the most complex. It concerns mortgages, rental agreements, licences, covenants, easements and the statutory systems for land registration. Regulations on the use of personal property fall under intellectual property, company law, trusts and commercial law. An example of a basic case of most property law is Armory v Delamirie [1722].[173] A chimney sweep's boy found a jewel encrusted with precious stones. He took it to a goldsmith to have it valued. The goldsmith's apprentice looked at it, sneakily removed the stones, told the boy it was worth three halfpence and that he would buy it. The boy said he would prefer the jewel back, so the apprentice gave it to him, but without the stones. The boy sued the goldsmith for his apprentice's attempt to cheat him. Lord Chief Justice Pratt ruled that even though the boy could not be said to own the jewel, he should be considered the rightful keeper ("finders keepers") until the original owner is found. In fact the apprentice and the boy both had a right of possession in the jewel (a technical concept, meaning evidence that something could belong to someone), but the boy's possessory interest was considered better, because it could be shown to be first in time. Possession may be nine tenths of the law, but not all. This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions, that the person who can show the best claim to a piece of property, against any contesting party, is the owner.[174] By contrast, the classic civil law approach to property, propounded by Friedrich Carl von Savigny, is that it is a right good against the world. Obligations, like contracts and torts, are conceptualised as rights good between individuals.[175] The idea of property raises many further philosophical and political issues. Locke argued that our "lives, liberties and estates" are our property because we own our bodies and mix our labour with our surroundings.[176] Equity and trusts Main articles: Equity (law) and Trust law The Court of Chancery, London, early 19th century Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the "common law". The common law was administered by judges and barristers. The Lord Chancellor on the other hand, as the King's keeper of conscience, could overrule the judge-made law if he thought it equitable to do so.[177] This meant equity came to operate more through principles than rigid rules. For instance, whereas neither the common law nor civil law systems allow people to split the ownership from the control of one piece of property, equity allows this through an arrangement known as a 'trust'. 'Trustees' control property, whereas the 'beneficial' (or 'equitable') ownership of trust property is held by people known as 'beneficiaries'. Trustees owe duties to their beneficiaries to take good care of the entrusted property.[178] In the early case of Keech v Sandford [1722][179] a child had inherited the lease on a market in Romford, London. Mr Sandford was entrusted to look after this property until the child matured. But before then, the lease expired. The landlord had (apparently) told Mr Sandford that he did not want the child to have the renewed lease. Yet the landlord was happy (apparently) to give Mr Sandford the opportunity of the lease instead. Mr Sandford took it. When the child (now Mr Keech) grew up, he sued Mr Sandford for the profit that he had been making by getting the market's lease. Mr Sandford was meant to be trusted, but he put himself in a position of conflict of interest. The Lord Chancellor, Lord King, agreed and ordered Mr Sandford should disgorge his profits. He wrote, I very well see, if a trustee, on the refusal to renew, might have a lease to himself few trust-estates would be renewed … This may seem very hard, that the trustee is the only person of all mankind who might not have the lease; but it is very proper that the rule should be strictly pursued and not at all relaxed. Of course, Lord King LC was worried that trustees might exploit opportunities to use trust property for themselves instead of looking after it. Business speculators using trusts had just recently caused a stock market crash. Strict duties for trustees made their way into company law and were applied to directors and chief executive officers. Another example of a trustee's duty might be to invest property wisely or sell it.[180] This is especially the case for pension funds, the most important form of trust, where investors are trustees for people's savings until retirement. But trusts can also be set up for charitable purposes, famous examples being the British Museum or the Rockefeller Foundation. Further disciplines Law spreads far beyond the core subjects into virtually every area of life. Three categories are presented for convenience, though the subjects intertwine and overlap. Law and society A trade union protest by UNISON while on strike Labour law is the study of a tripartite industrial relationship between worker, employer and trade union. This involves collective bargaining regulation, and the right to strike. Individual employment law refers to workplace rights, such as job security, health and safety or a minimum wage. Human rights, civil rights and human rights law are important fields to guarantee everyone basic freedoms and entitlements. These are laid down in codes such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights (which founded the European Court of Human Rights) and the U.S. Bill of Rights. The Treaty of Lisbon makes the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union legally binding in all member states except Poland and the United Kingdom.[181] Civil procedure and criminal procedure concern the rules that courts must follow as a trial and appeals proceed. Both concern a citizen's right to a fair trial or hearing. Evidence law involves which materials are admissible in courts for a case to be built. Immigration law and nationality law concern the rights of foreigners to live and work in a nation-state that is not their own and to acquire or lose citizenship. Both also involve the right of asylum and the problem of stateless individuals. Social security law refers to the rights people have to social insurance, such as jobseekers' allowances or housing benefits. Family law covers marriage and divorce proceedings, the rights of children and rights to property and money in the event of separation. Transactional law refers to the practice of law concerning business and money. Law and commerce Company law sprang from the law of trusts, on the principle of separating ownership of property and control.[182] The law of the modern company began with the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856, passed in the United Kingdom, which provided investors with a simple registration procedure to gain limited liability under the separate legal personality of the corporation. Commercial law covers complex contract and property law. The law of agency, insurance law, bills of exchange, insolvency and bankruptcy law and sales law are all important, and trace back to the medieval Lex Mercatoria. The UK Sale of Goods Act 1979 and the US Uniform Commercial Code are examples of codified common law commercial principles. Admiralty law and the Law of the Sea lay a basic framework for free trade and commerce across the world's oceans and seas, where outside of a country's zone of control. Shipping companies operate through ordinary principles of commercial law, generalised for a global market. Admiralty law also encompasses specialised issues such as salvage, maritime liens, and injuries to passengers. Intellectual property law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services. These are legal rights (copyrights, trademarks, patents, and related rights) which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, literary and artistic fields.[183] Restitution deals with the recovery of someone else's gain, rather than compensation for one's own loss. Unjust enrichment When someone has been unjustly enriched (or there is an "absence of basis" for a transaction) at another's expense, this event generates the right to restitution to reverse that gain. Space law is a relatively new field dealing with aspects of international law regarding human activities in Earth orbit and outer space. While at first addressing space relations of countries via treaties, increasingly it is addressing areas such as space commercialisation, property, liability, and other issues. Law and regulation The New York Stock Exchange trading floor after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, before tougher banking regulation was introduced Tax law involves regulations that concern value added tax, corporate tax, and income tax. Banking law and financial regulation set minimum standards on the amounts of capital banks must hold, and rules about best practice for investment. This is to insure against the risk of economic crises, such as the Wall Street Crash of 1929. Regulation deals with the provision of public services and utilities. Water law is one example. Especially since privatisation became popular and took management of services away from public law, private companies doing the jobs previously controlled by government have been bound by varying degrees of social responsibility. Energy, gas, telecomms and water are regulated industries in most OECD countries. Competition law, known in the U.S. as antitrust law, is an evolving field that traces as far back as Roman decrees against price fixing and the English restraint of trade doctrine. Modern competition law derives from the U.S. anti-cartel and anti-monopoly statutes (the Sherman Act and Clayton Act) of the turn of the 20th century. It is used to control businesses who attempt to use their economic influence to distort market prices at the expense of consumer welfare. Consumer law could include anything from regulations on unfair contractual terms and clauses to directives on airline baggage insurance. Environmental law is increasingly important, especially in light of the Kyoto Protocol and the potential danger of climate change. Environmental protection also serves to penalise polluters within domestic legal systems. See also Law portal Library resources about Law Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Law dictionary Legal research in the United States Legal treatise Political science Public interest law Rule according to higher law Social law Translating "law" to other European languages Law – Wikipedia book Notes Luban, Law's Blindfold, 23. Robertson, Crimes against humanity, 90. "What is sharia law?". brightknowledge.org. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. "Criminal and Civil Law". www.cscja-acjcs.ca. Retrieved 2016-07-31. Third New International Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Inc., Springfield, Massachusetts. Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Charles Scribner's Sons, Editor Philip P. Weiner, 1973. Lord Lloyd of Hampstead. Introduction to Jurisprudence. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975. p. 39. Mc Coubrey, Hilaire and White, Nigel D. Textbook on Jurisprudence. Second Edition. Blackstone Press Limited. 1996. ISBN 1-85431-582-X. p. 2. Williams, Glanville. International Law and the Controversy Concerning the Meaning of the Word "Law". Revised version published in Laslett (Editor), Philosophy, Politics and Society (1956) p. 134 et seq. The original was published in (1945) 22 BYBIL 146. Arnold, Thurman. The Symbols of Government. 1935. p. 36. Lord Lloyd of Hampstead. Introduction to Jurisprudence. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975. Théodoridés. "law". Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. VerSteeg, Law in ancient Egypt Richardson, Hammurabi's Laws, 11 Kelly, A Short History of Western Legal Theory, 5–6 J.P. Mallory, "Law", in Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, 346 Ober, The Nature of Athenian Democracy, 121 Kelly, A Short History of Western Legal Theory, 39 Stein, Roman Law in European History, 1 As a legal system, Roman law has affected the development of law worldwide. It also forms the basis for the law codes of most countries of continental Europe and has played an important role in the creation of the idea of a common European culture (Stein, Roman Law in European History, 2, 104–107). Sealey-Hooley, Commercial Law, 14 Mattei, Comparative Law and Economics, 71 For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, Manu's Code of Law, 18–25. Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 276 Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 273 Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 287 Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 304 Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 305 Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 307 Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 309 Farah, Five Years of China WTO Membership, 263–304 Rousseau, The Social Contract, Book II: Chapter 6 (Law) Bix, John Austin Fritz Berolzheimer, The World's Legal Philosophies, 115–116 Kant, Immanuel, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, 42 (par. 434) Green, Legal Positivism Nietzsche, Zur Genealogie der Moral, Second Essay, 11 Kazantzakis, Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law, 97–98 Linarelli, Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral, 23–26 Marmor, The Pure Theory of Law Bielefeldt, Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism, 25–26 Finn, Constitutions in Crisis, 170–171 Bayles, Hart's Legal Philosophy, 21 Dworkin, Law's Empire, 410. Raz, The Authority of Law, 3–36 Raz, The Authority of Law, 37 etc. Campbell, The Contribution of Legal Studies, 184 Dworkin, Law's Empire, 410 Holmes, Oliver Wendell. "The Path of Law (1897) 10 Harvard Law Review 457 at 461. Aquinas, St Thomas. Summa Theologica. 1a2ae, 90.4. Translated by J G Dawson. Ed d'Entreves. (Basil Blackwell). Latin: "nihil est aliud qau edam rationis ordinatio ad bonum commune, ab eo qi curam communitatis habet, promulgata". McCoubrey, Hilaire and White, Nigel D. Textbook on Jurisprudence. Second Edition. Blackstone Press Limited. 1996. ISBN 1-85431-582-X. p. 73. According to Malloy (Law and Economics, 114), Smith established "a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others". Jakoby, Economic Ideas and the Labour Market, 53 "The Becker-Posner Blog". Retrieved 20 May 2010. Coase, The Nature of the Firm, 386–405 Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, 1–44 Sturges v Bridgman (1879) 11 Ch D 852 Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, IV, 7 Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, V, 9 Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, VIII, 23 Cotterrell, Sociology of Law, Jary, Collins Dictionary of Sociology, 636 Ehrlich, Fundamental Principles, Hertogh, Living Law, Rottleuthner, La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne, 109, Rottleuthner, Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts, 521 Cotterrell, Law, Culture and Society Rheinstein, Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society, 336 Cotterrell, Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain, Johnson, The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology, 156 Gurvitch, Sociology of Law, 142 Papachristou, Sociology of Law, 81–82 Modern scholars argue that the significance of this distinction has progressively declined; the numerous legal transplants, typical of modern law, result in the sharing by modern legal systems of many features traditionally considered typical of either common law or civil law (Mattei, Comparative Law and Economics, 71) Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (ius scriptum) or legislation, and "unwritten law" (ius non scriptum) or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, General Principles of Civil Law, 19; Washofsky, Taking Precedent Seriously, 7). Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 18 Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 21 Stein, Roman Law in European History, 32 Stein, Roman Law in European History, 35 Stein, Roman Law in European History, 43 Hatzis, The Short-Lived Influence of the Napoleonic Civil Code in Greece, 253–263 Demirgüç-Kunt -Levine, Financial Structures and Economic Growth, 204 The World Factbook – Field Listing – Legal system, CIA Magna Carta, Fordham University Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 4 Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 3 Pollock (ed) Table Talk of John Selden (1927) 43; "Equity is a roguish thing. For law we have a measure... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor, and as that is longer or narrower, so is equity. 'Tis all one as if they should make the standard for the measure a Chancellor's foot." Gee v Pritchard (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414 Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Book the First – Chapter the First Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 17 Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 159 Anderson, Law Reform in the Middle East, 43 Giannoulatos, Islam, 274–275 Sherif, Constitutions of Arab Countries, 157–158 Saudi Arabia Archived 30 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine., Jurist Akhlagi, Iranian Commercial Law, 127 Hallaq, The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law, 1 Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, XVII A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court, Supreme Court of the United States House of Lords Judgments, House of Lords Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts Archived 21 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine., Bundesverfassungsgericht Jurisprudence, publications, documentation, Cour de cassation Goldhaber, European Court of Human Rights, 1–2 Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 37–82 E.g., the court president is a political appointee (Jensen–Heller, Introduction, 11–12). About the notion of "judicial independence" in China, see Findlay, Judiciary in the PRC, 282–284 Sherif, Constitutions of Arab Countries, 158 Rasekh, Islamism and Republicanism, 115–116 Riker, The Justification of Bicameralism, 101 About "cabinet accountability" in both presidential and parliamentary systems, see Shugart–Haggard, Presidential Systems, 67 etc. Haggard, Presidents, Parliaments and Policy, 71 Olson, The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe, 7 See, e.g. Tuberville v Savage (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight said in a threatening tone to a layman, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you." History of Police Forces Archived 29 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine., History.com Encyclopedia Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité, La Préfecture de Police Weber, Politics as a Vocation Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation, 154 In these cases sovereignty is eroded, and often warlords acquire excessive powers (Fukuyama, State-Building, 166–167). Bureaucracy, Online Etymology Dictionary Albrow, Bureaucracy, 16 Mises, Bureaucracy, II, Bureaucratic Management Kettl, Public Bureaucracies, 367 Weber, Economy and Society, I, 393 Kettl, Public Bureaucracies, 371 Hazard–Dondi, Legal Ethics, 22 Hazard–Dondi, Legal Ethics, 1 The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom [1979] ECHR 1 at 49 Case no. 6538/74 "British English: Esquire". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 23 September 2014. "American English: Esquire". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 23 September 2014. Ahamd, Lawyers: Islamic Law Archived 1 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Hazard–Dondi, Legal Ethics, 22–23 Fine, The Globalisation of Legal Education, 364 Warren, Civil Society, 3–4 Locke, Second Treatise, Chap. VII, Of Political or Civil_Society. Chapter 7, section 87 Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, 3, II, 182; Karkatsoulis, The State in Transition, 277–278 (Pelczynski, The State and Civil Society, 1–13; Warren, Civil Society, 5–9) Zaleski, Pawel (2008). "Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality". Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte. Felix Meiner Verlag. 50. Robertson, Crimes Against Humanity, 98–99 There is no clear legal definition of the civil society, and of the institutions it includes. Most of the institutions and bodies who try to give a list of institutions (such as the European Economic and Social Committee) exclude the political parties. For further information, see Jakobs, Pursuing Equal Opportunities, 5–6; Kaldor–Anheier–Glasius, Global Civil Society, passim (PDF); Karkatsoulis, The State in Transition, 282–283. Archived 17 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Although many scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred", and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, Liability and Environment, 1–2). E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a "qualifying law degree". For criticism, see Peter Birks' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the Notice to Law Schools. Pagden, Anthony (1991). Vitoria: Political Writings (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought). UK: Cambridge University Press. p. xvi. ISBN 0-521-36714-X. History of the UN Archived 18 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine., United Nations. Winston Churchill (The Hinge of Fate, 719) comments on the League of Nations' failure: "It was wrong to say that the League failed. It was rather the member states who had failed the League." The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states (Robertson, Crimes against Humanity, 90; Schermers-Blokker, International Institutional Law, 900–901). Petersmann, The GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement System International Criminal Court Archived 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine., 32 Redfem, International Commercial Arbitration, 68–69 Schermers–Blokker, International Institutional Law, 943 See the fundamental C-26/62 Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, and Flaminio Costa v E.N.E.L. decisions of the European Court. Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030; [1765] 95 ER 807 "Entick v Carrington". 19 Howell’s State Trials 1029 (1765). US: Constitution Society. Retrieved 13 November 2008. Locke, The Second Treatise, Chapter 9, section 124 Tamanaha, On the Rule of Law, 47 Auby, Administrative Law in France, 75 Cesare Beccaria's seminal treatise of 1763–1764 is titled On Crimes and Punishments (Dei delitti e delle pene). Brody, Acker and Logan, Criminal Law, 2; Wilson, Criminal Law, 2 Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams Textbook of Criminal Law (London: 2012), 2 See e.g. Brody, Acker and Logan, Criminal Law, 205 about Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962). See e.g. Feinman, Law 111, 260–261 about Powell v. Texas, 392 U.S. 514 (1968). Dörmann, Doswald-Beck and Kolb, Elements of War Crimes, 491 Kaiser, Leistungsstörungen, 333 About R v Dudley and Stephens [1884] 14 QBD 273 DC Archived 28 February 2005 at the Wayback Machine., see Simpson, Cannibalism and the Common Law, 212–217, 229–237 Pelser, Criminal Legislation, 198 The States Parties to the Rome Statute Archived 23 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine., International Criminal Court Wehberg, Pacta Sunt Servanda, 775 About Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company Archived 5 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine. [1893] 1 QB 256, and the element of consideration, see Beale and Tallon, Contract Law, 142–143 Austotel v Franklins (1989) 16 NSWLR 582 e.g. in Germany, § 311 Abs. II BGB "§ 105 BGB Nichtigkeit der Willenserklärung". dejure.org. Smith, The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law, 1037 Bolton v Stone [1951] AC 850 Donoghue v Stevenson ([1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1). See the original text of the case in UK Law Online. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 532, 580 e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd [2004] EWHC 2786 Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants [1901] AC 426 In the UK, Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992; c.f. in the U.S., National Labor Relations Act Harris, The Bubble Act, 610–627 e.g. Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd [1997] 2 All ER 426 Armory v Delamirie (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505 Matthews, The Man of Property, 251–274 Savigny, Das Recht des Besitzes, 25 Locke, Second Treatise on Civil Government, Chap. IX. Of the Ends of Political Society and Government. Chapter 9, section 123. McGhee, Snell's Equity, 7 c.f. Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew [1998] Ch 1 Keech v Sandford (1726) Sel Cas Ch 61 Nestlé v National Westminster Bank plc [1993] 1 WLR 1260 A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon Archived 10 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine., The Law Society Berle, Modern Corporation and Private Property WIPO, Intellectual Property, 3 References Printed sources Ahmad, Ahmad Atif. "Lawyers: Islamic Law" (PDF). Oxford Encyclopedia of Legal History. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009. Akhlaghi, Behrooz (2005). "Iranian Commercial Law and the New Investment Law FIPPA". In Yassari, Nadjma. The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-148787-7. Albrow, Martin (1970). Bureaucracy (Key Concepts in Political Science). London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-11262-8. Anderson, J.N.D. (January 1956). "Law Reform in the Middle East". International Affairs. 32 (1): 43–51. doi:10.2307/2607811. JSTOR 2607811. Aristotle. Wikisource link to Athenian Constitution. Trans. Frederic George Kenyon. Wikisource. See original text in Perseus program. Barzilai, Gad (2003), Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. The University of Michigan Press, 2003. Second print 2005 ISBN 0-472-11315-1 Auby, Jean-Bernard (2002). "Administrative Law in France". In Stroink, F.A.M.; Seerden, René. Administrative Law of the European Union, its Member States and the United States. Intersentia. ISBN 90-5095-251-8. Gad Barzilai (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11315-1. Bayles, Michael D. (1992). "A Critique of Austin". Hart's Legal Philosophy. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-1981-8. Beale, Hugh; Tallon, Denis (2002). "English Law: Consideration". Contract Law. Hart Publishing. ISBN 1-84113-237-3. Bergkamp, Lucas (2001). "Introduction". Liability and Environment. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-411-1645-1. Berle, Adolf (1932). Modern Corporation and Private Property. Bielefeldt, Heiner (1998). "Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism: Systematic Reconstruction and Countercriticism". In David Dyzenhaus. Law as Politics: Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2244-7. Blackstone, William (1765–69). Commentaries on the Laws of England. Brody, David C.; Acker, James R.; Logan, Wayne A. (2000). "Introduction to the Study of Criminal Law". Criminal Law. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-8342-1083-5. Campbell, Tom D. (1993). "The Contribution of Legal Studies". A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-19951-9. Churchill, Winston (1986). "Problems of War and Peace". The Hinge of Fate. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-395-41058-4. Clarke, Paul A. B.; Linzey, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Ethics, Theology and Society. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06212-8. Coase, Ronald H. (November 1937). "The Nature of the Firm". Economica. 4 (16): 386–405. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x. Coase, Ronald H. (October 1960). "The Problem of Social Cost (this online version excludes some parts)". Journal of Law and Economics. 3: 1–44. doi:10.1086/466560. Demirgüç-Kunt, Asli; Levine, Ross (2001). "Financial Structures and Economic Growth". Financial Structures and Economic Growth. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-54179-3. Cotterrell, Roger (1992). The Sociology of Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-406-51770-3. Cotterrell, Roger (1999). Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. Edinburgh University Press/ Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1339-0. Cotterrell, Roger (2006). Law, Culture and Society: Legal Ideas in the Mirror of Social Theory. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-2511-7. Curtin, Deirdre; Wessel, Ramses A. (2005). "A Survey of the Content of Good Governance for some International Organisations". Good Governance and the European Union: Reflections on Concepts, Institutions and Substance. Intersentia nv. ISBN 90-5095-381-6. Albert Venn, Dicey (2005). "Parliamentary Sovereignty and Federalism". Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1-4021-8555-3. Dörmann, Knut; Doswald-Beck, Louise; Kolb, Robert (2003). "Appendix". Elements of War Crimes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81852-4. Durkheim, Émile (1893). The Division of Labor in Society. The Free Press reprint. ISBN 0-684-83638-6. Dworkin, Ronald (1986). Law's Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51836-5. Ehrlich, Eugen (2002) [1936]. Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law. Transaction Books reprint. Farah, Paolo (August 2006). "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. 33 (3): 263–304. SSRN 916768 Freely accessible. Feinman, Jay M. (2006). "Criminal Responsibility and Criminal Law". Law 101. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-517957-9. Findlay, Marc (1999). "'Independence' and the Judiciary in the PRC". In Jayasuriya, Kanishka. Law, Capitalism and Power in Asia. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-19742-2. Fine, Tony F. (2001). "The Globalization of Legal Education in the United States". In Drolshammer, Jens I.; Pfeifer, Michael. The Internationalization of the Practice of Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-411-1620-6. Finn, John E. (1991). "Constitutional Dissolution in the Weimar Republic". Constitutions in Crisis: Political Violence and the Rule of Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505738-4. France, Anatole (1894). The Red Lily (Le lys rouge). Fukuyama, Francis (2005). State-Building (First edition in English 2004 ed.). Editions Livanis. ISBN 960-14-1159-3. Georgiadis, Apostolos S. (1997). "Sources of Law". General Principles of Civil Law (in Greek). Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers. ISBN 960-232-715-4. Giannoulatos, Anastasios (1975). "Characteristics of Modern Islam". Islam – A General Survey (in Greek). Athens: Poreuthentes. Glenn, H. Patrick (2000). Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-876575-4. Michael D., Goldhaber (2007). "Europe's Supreme Court". A People's History of the European Court of Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-3983-8. Gordley, James R.; von Mehren; Arthur Taylor (2006). An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Private Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68185-8. Gurvitch, Georges; Hunt, Alan (2001) [1942]. "Max Weber and Eugen Ehrlich". Sociology of Law. Athens: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0-7658-0704-1. Haggard, Stephan (2001). "Institutions and Public Policy in Presidential Systems". Presidents, Parliaments and Policy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77485-3. Hallaq, Wael Bahjat (2005). "Introduction". The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00580-9. Hamilton, Michael S., and George W. Spiro (2008). The Dynamics of Law, 4th ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7656-2086-6. Harris, Ron (September 1994). "The Bubble Act: Its Passage and Its Effects on Business Organization". The Journal of Economic History. 54 (3): 610–27. doi:10.1017/S0022050700015059. JSTOR 2123870?. Hart, H.L.A. (1961). The Concept of Law. Oxford University Press. Hatzis, Aristides N. (November 2002). "The Nature of the Firm". European Journal of Law and Economics. 14 (3): 253–263. doi:10.1023/A:1020749518104. Retrieved 13 February 2007. Hayek, Friedrich (1978). The Constitution of Liberty. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-32084-7. Hazard, Geoffrey C.; Dondi, Angelo (2004). Legal Ethics. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4882-9. Hegel, Georg (1820). Elements of the Philosophy of Right (in German). Heinze, Eric (2013). The Concept of Injustice. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-52441-4. Hertogh (ed), Marc (2009). Living Law: Reconsidering Eugen Ehrlich. Hart. ISBN 978-1-84113-898-5. Hobbes, Thomas (1651). "Chapter XVII: Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth". Leviathan. Archived from the original on 27 November 2010. Jakobs, Lesley A. (2004). "Retrieving Equality of Opportunity". Pursuing Equal Opportunities. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53021-0. Jakoby, Stanford M. (Winter 2005). "Economic Ideas and the Labour Market – Chapter: Cycles of Economic Thought" (PDF). Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal. 25 (1): 43–78. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 12 February 2007. Jary, David; Julia Jary (1995). Collins Dictionary of Sociology. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-470804-0. Jensen, Eric G.; Heller, Thomas C. (2003). "Introduction". In Jensen, Eric G.; Heller, Thomas C. Beyond Common Knowledge. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4803-9. Johnson, Alan (1995). The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. Blackwells publishers. ISBN 1-55786-116-1. Kaiser, Dagmar (2005). "Leistungsstōrungen". In Staudinger, Julius von; Martinek, Michael; Beckmann, Roland Michael. Eckpfeiler Des Zivilrechts. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-8059-1019-3. Kaldor, Mary; Anheier, Helmut; Glasius, Marlies (2003). "Global Civil Society in an Era of Regressive Globalisation". In Kaldor, Mary; Anheier, Helmut; Glasius, Marlies. Global Civil Society Yearbook 2003. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926655-7. Kant, Immanuel (1998) [1785]. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Translated by Mary Gregor). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62695-1. Karkatsoulis, Panagiotis (2004). "Civil Society and New Public Management". The State in Transition (in Greek). Athens: I. Sideris. ISBN 960-08-0333-1. Kazantzakis, Nikos (1998) [1909]. "Law". Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law and Polity (in Greek). Athens: Editions Kazantzakis. Kelly, J.M. (1992). A Short History of Western Legal Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-876244-5. Kettl, Don (November 2006). "Public Bureaucracies". The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-927569-6. Linarelli, John (2004). "Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral: Beyond Reason and Postmodernism – Chapter: Cycles of Economic Thought". Catholic University Law Review. 53: 413–457. doi:10.2139/ssrn.421040. SSRN 421040 Freely accessible. Locke, John (1689). "Wikisource link to Book II". Two Treatises of Government. Wikisource. Luban, David (2001). "Law's Blindfold". Conflict of Interest in the Professions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512863-X. Malloy, Robin Paul (1994). "Adam Smith and the Modern Discourse of Law and Economics". In Paul Malloy, Robin; Evensky, Jerry. Adam Smith and the Philosophy of Law and Economics. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-2796-9. Mattei, Ugo (1997). "The Distinction between Common Law and Civil Law". Comparative Law and Economics. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-06649-8. Matthews, Paul (Autumn 1995). "The Man of Property". Medical Law Review. 3 (3): 251–274. doi:10.1093/medlaw/3.3.251. PMID 11657690. McGhee, John (2000). Snell's Equity. London: Sweet and Maxwell. ISBN 0-421-85260-7. Mises, Ludwig von (1962) [1944]. Bureaucracy (PDF). Retrieved 10 November 2006. Montesquieu, Baron de (1748). "Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7". The Spirit of Laws (translated in English by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard). Nietzsche, Friedrich (1887). "Zweite Abhandlung: "Schuld", "schlechtes Gewissen" und Verwandtes". Zur Genealogie der Moral – Eine Streitschrift (in German). Ober, Josiah (1996). "The Nature of Athenian Democracy". The Athenian Revolution: Essays on Ancient Greek Democracy and Political Theory. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00190-1. Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Manava-Dharmasastra. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517146-2. Olson, David M., Norton, Philip (1996). "Legislatures in Democratic Transition". The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe. Frank Cass (UK). ISBN 0-7146-4261-4. Papachristou, T.K. (1999). "The Sociological Approach of Law". Sociology of Law (in Greek). Athens: A.N. Sakkoulas Publishers. ISBN 960-15-0106-1. Patterson, James T. (2001). Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515632-3. Pelczynski, A.Z. (1984). The State and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich (1997). "Rule of Law and Constitutionalism". The GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement System. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-411-0933-1. Rasekh, Mohammad (2005). "Are Islamism and Republicanism Compatible?". In Yassari, Nadjma. The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-148787-7. Raz, Joseph (1979). The Authority of Law, Essays on Law and Morality. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-825493-8. Redfem, Alan (2004). "Regulation of International Arbitration". Law and Practice of International Commercial Arbitration. Sweet & Maxwell. ISBN 0-421-86240-8. Rheinstein, M. (1954). Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society. Harvard University Press. Richardson, W.E.J. (2004). "Introduction". Hammurabi's Laws. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-567-08158-3. Riker, William H. (January 1992). "The Justification of Bicameralism". International Political Science Review / Revue internationale de science politique. 13 (1): 101–116. doi:10.1177/019251219201300107. JSTOR 1601440. Robertson, Geoffrey (2006). Crimes Against Humanity. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-102463-9. Roeber, A. G. (October 2001). "What the Law Requires Is Written on Their Hearts: Noachic and Natural Law among German-Speakers in Early Modern North America". William and Mary Quarterly. Third Series. 58 (4): 883–912. doi:10.2307/2674504. JSTOR 2674504. Rottleuthner, Hubert (December 1989). "La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne" (PDF). Droit et Société (in French). 11: 101–120. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2006. Retrieved 10 February 2007. Rottleuthner, Hubert (1984). "Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts. Die Kontroverse zwischen Hans Kelsen und Eugen Ehrlich (1915/17)". Rechtstheorie (in German). 5: 521–551. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1762). "Book II: Chapter 6 (Law)". The Social Contract (translated in English by G. D. H. Cole) (in French). Savigny, Friedrich Carl von (1803). "Zu welcher Classe von Rechten gehört der Besitz?". Das Recht des Besitzes (in German). Schermers, Henry G.; Blokker, Niels M. (1995). "Supervision and Sanctions". International Institutional Law. The Hague/London/Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publisher. Sealy, L.S.; Hooley, R.J.A. (2003). Commercial Law. LexisNexis Butterworths. Sherif, Adel Omar (2005). "Constitutions of Arab Countries and the Position of Sharia". In Yassari, Nadjma. The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-148787-7. Shugart, Matthew Soberg; Haggard, Stephan (2001). "Institutions and Public Policy in Presidential Systems". In Haggard, Stephan; McCubbins, Mathew Daniel. Presidents, Parliaments, and Policy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77485-3. Simpson, A.W.B. (1984). Cannibalism and the Common Law. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-75942-5. Smith, Stephen A. (Winter 2003). "The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law: Is Restitution a Right or a Remedy" (PDF). Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review. 36 (2): 1037–1062. Retrieved 9 February 2007. Stein, Peter (1999). Roman Law in European History. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-521-64372-4. Stone, Julius (1965). "Early Horizons of Justice in the West". Human Law and Human Justice. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0215-2. Tamanaha, Brian Z. (2004). "Locke, Montesquieu the Federalist Papers". On the Rule of Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-60465-6. Théodoridés, Aristide (1999). "law". Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge (UK). 0-415-18589-0. VerSteeg, Russ (2002). Law in Ancient Egypt. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 0-89089-978-9. Warren, Mark E. (1999). Civil Society and Good Governance (PDF). Washington DC: Center for the Study of Voluntary Organisations and Services, Georgetown University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2008. Washofsky, Mark (2002). "Taking Precedent Seriously". Re-Examining Progressive Halakhah edited by Walter Jacob, Moshe Zemer. Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-404-3. Weber, Max (1978). "Bureaucracy and Political Leadership". Economy and Society, Volume I (Translated and edited by Claus Wittich, Ephraim Fischoff, and Guenther Roth). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03500-3. Weber, Max (1919). Wikisource link to Politics as a Vocation. Wikisource. Weber, Max (1964). The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (Edited with Introduction by Talcott Parsons – Translated in English by A. M. Henderson). The Free Press of Glencoe. ASIN B-000-LRHAX-2. Wehberg, Hans (October 1959). "Pacta Sunt Servanda". The American Journal of International Law. 53 (4): 775–786. doi:10.2307/2195750. JSTOR 2195750. Wilson, William (2003). "Understanding Criminal Law". Criminal Law. Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-47301-2. World Intellectual Property Organization (1997). "The System of Intellectual Property". Introduction to Intellectual Property. Kluwer Law International. ISBN 90-411-0938-2. Silvestri, Paolo, "The ideal of good government in Luigi Einaudi’s Thought and Life: Between Law and Freedom", in Paolo Heritier, Paolo Silvestri (Eds.), Good government, Governance, Human complexity. Luigi Einaudi's legacy and contemporary societies, Leo Olschki, Firenze, 2012, pp. 55–95. Online sources "A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved 10 November 2006. "A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon" (PDF). The Law Society. January 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2008. Retrieved 1 September 2008. Bix, Brian. "John Austin". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 14 February 2007. "bureaucracy". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2 September 2007. "C-26/62 Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen". Eur-Lex. Retrieved 19 January 2007. "C-6/64 Flaminio Costa v ENEL". Eur-Lex. Retrieved 1 September 2007. "Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité : la Préfecture de Police au Service des Citoyens" (in French). La Préfecture de Police de Paris. Archived from the original on 6 May 2008. Retrieved 24 January 2007. "Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts (Decisions of the Federal Constitutional Court)" (in German). Bundesverfassungsgericht. Archived from the original on 21 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006. Green, Leslie. "Legal Positivism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 10 December 2006. "History of Police Forces". History.com Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 29 December 2006. Retrieved 10 December 2006. Society From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search For other uses, see Society (disambiguation). Anthropology OutlineHistory Types[show] Archaeological[show] Biological[show] SocialCultural [show] Linguistic[show] Research framework[show] Key concepts[show] Key theories[show] Lists[show] Moai Easter Island InvMH-35-61-1.jpg Anthropology portal vte Sociology Social Network Diagram (segment).svg History Outline Portal Main theories Structural functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism Methods Quantitative Qualitative Historical Comparative Mathematical Computational Ethnography Ethnomethodology Network analysis Positivism Critical theory Subfields and other major theories Conflict Criminology Social constructionism Culture Development Deviance Demography Education Economic Environmental Family Feminist sociology Gender Health Immigration Industrial Inequality Knowledge Law Literature Medical Military Organizational Political Race and ethnicity Religion Rural Science Social change Social movements Social psychology in sociology Stratification Science and technology Technology Terrorism Urban Utilitarianism Browse Bibliography By country Index Journals Organizations People Timeline vte A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent of members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. More broadly, and especially within structuralist thought, a society may be illustrated as an economic, social, industrial or cultural infrastructure, made up of, yet distinct from, a varied collection of individuals. In this regard society can mean the objective relationships people have with the material world and with other people, rather than "other people" beyond the individual and their familiar social environment. Contents 1 Etymology and usage 2 Conceptions 2.1 In political science 2.2 In sociology 3 Types 3.1 Pre-industrial 3.1.1 Hunting and gathering 3.1.2 Pastoral 3.1.3 Horticultural 3.1.4 Agrarian 3.1.5 Feudal 3.2 Industrial 3.3 Post-industrial 4 Contemporary usage 4.1 Western 4.2 Information 4.3 Knowledge 4.4 Other uses 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Further reading 8 External links Etymology and usage A half-section of the 12th-century South Tang Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai, original by Gu Hongzhong. The painting portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, and hosts all in a single social environment. It serves as an in-depth look into the Chinese social structure of the time. The term "society" came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, ally"; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity (also: "society in general", "society at large", etc.), although those who are unfriendly or uncivil to the remainder of society in this sense may be deemed to be "antisocial". However, the Scottish economist, Adam Smith taught instead that a society "may subsist among different men, as among different merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if only they refrain from doing injury to each other."[1] Used in the sense of an association, a society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence, possibly comprising characteristics such as national or cultural identity, social solidarity, language, or hierarchical structure. Conceptions Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. The great apes have always been more (Bonobo, Homo, Pan) or less (Gorilla, Pongo) social animals, so Robinson Crusoe-like situations are either fictions or unusual corner cases to the ubiquity of social context for humans, who fall between presocial and eusocial in the spectrum of animal ethology. Cultural relativism as a widespread approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of "primitive", better/worse, or "progress" in relation to cultures (including their material culture/technology and social organization). According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier, one critical novelty in society, in contrast to humanity's closest biological relatives (chimpanzees and bonobos), is the parental role assumed by the males, which supposedly would be absent in our nearest relatives for whom paternity is not generally determinable.[2][3] In political science Societies may also be structured politically. In order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of political power, depending on the cultural, geographical, and historical environments that these societies must contend with. Thus, a more isolated society with the same level of technology and culture as other societies is more likely to survive than one in closer proximity to others that may encroach on their resources. A society that is unable to offer an effective response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. In sociology The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae) social ethology. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as "...a human product, and nothing but a human product, that yet continuously acts upon its producers." According to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day.[4] Canis lupus social ethology Sociologist Gerhard Lenski differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial, and (5) special (e.g. fishing societies or maritime societies).[5] This is similar to the system earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories: Hunter-gatherer bands (categorization of duties and responsibilities). Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Stratified structures led by chieftains. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments. In addition to this there are: Humanity, humankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including society's beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on online identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.[6] Many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all known cultures; typically, prestige accrues to the generous individual or group. Conversely, members of a society may also shun or scapegoat members of the society who violate its norms. Mechanisms such as gift-giving, joking relationships and scapegoating, which may be seen in various types of human groupings, tend to be institutionalized within a society. Social evolution as a phenomenon carries with it certain elements that could be detrimental to the population it serves. Some societies bestow status on an individual or group of people when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action. This type of recognition is bestowed in the form of a name, title, manner of dress, or monetary reward. In many societies, adult male or female status is subject to a ritual or process of this type. Altruistic action in the interests of the larger group is seen in virtually all societies. The phenomena of community action, shunning, scapegoating, generosity, shared risk, and reward are common to many forms of society. Types Societies are social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies, the ways that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification, the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial. Pre-industrial Main article: Pre-industrial society In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor, is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and feudal. Hunting and gathering Main article: Hunter-gatherer society San people in Botswana start a fire by hand. The main form of food production in such societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts, and usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes. However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as people of tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies. They generally consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed 100. Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that bind the tribe are more complex than those of the bands. Leadership is personal—charismatic—and used for special purposes only in tribal society. There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidations for collective action are not governmental. The family forms the main social unit, with most members being related by birth or marriage. This type of organization requires the family to carry out most social functions, including production and education. Pastoral Main article: Pastoral society Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another. Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor (the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities) becomes more complex. For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry. The production of goods encourages trade. This trade helps to create inequality, as some families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased wealth. The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power. Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships, the typical form of government in pastoral societies. Horticultural Main article: Horticulturalist society Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops. The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages. The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000. As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural political systems, developed because of the settled nature of horticultural life. Agrarian Main article: Agrarian society Ploughing with oxen in the 15th century Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment. Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies. For example, women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from “lesser” members of society. Cleric, knight and peasant; an example of feudal societies Feudal Main article: Feudal society Feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals under feudalism were bound to cultivating their lord's land. In exchange for military protection, the lords exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services to the landowner. The estates of the realm system of feudalism was often multigenerational; the families of peasants may have cultivated their lord's land for generations. Industrial Main article: Industrial societies Between the 15th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that began to replace feudalism. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in European societies. Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods. This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency. The increased efficiency of production of the industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before. Now the surplus was not just agricultural goods, but also manufactured goods. This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced. Once again, the population boomed. Increased productivity made more goods available to everyone. However, inequality became even greater than before. The breakup of agricultural-based feudal societies caused many people to leave the land and seek employment in cities. This created a great surplus of labor and gave capitalists plenty of laborers who could be hired for extremely low wages. Post-industrial Main article: Post-industrial society Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information, services, and high technology more than the production of goods. Advanced industrial societies are now seeing a shift toward an increase in service sectors over manufacturing and production. The United States is the first country to have over half of its work force employed in service industries. Service industries include government, research, education, health, sales, law, and banking. Contemporary usage The term "society" is currently used to cover both a number of political and scientific connotations as well as a variety of associations. Western Main article: Western world The development of the Western world has brought with it the emerging concepts of Western culture, politics, and ideas, often referred to simply as "Western society". Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. It sometimes also includes Eastern Europe, South America, and Israel. The cultures and lifestyles of all of these stem from Western Europe. They all enjoy relatively strong economies and stable governments, allow freedom of religion, have chosen democracy as a form of governance, favor capitalism and international trade, are heavily influenced by Judeo-Christian values, and have some form of political and military alliance or cooperation.[7] Information World Summit on the Information Society, Geneva Main article: Information society Although the concept of information society has been under discussion since the 1930s, in the modern world it is almost always applied to the manner in which information technologies have impacted society and culture. It therefore covers the effects of computers and telecommunications on the home, the workplace, schools, government, and various communities and organizations, as well as the emergence of new social forms in cyberspace.[8] One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society. Here policies are directed towards promoting an open and competitive digital economy, research into information and communication technologies, as well as their application to improve social inclusion, public services, and quality of life.[9] The International Telecommunications Union's World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva and Tunis (2003 and 2005) has led to a number of policy and application areas where action is envisaged.[10] Knowledge Main article: Knowledge society The Seoul Cyworld control room As access to electronic information resources increased at the beginning of the 21st century, special attention was extended from the information society to the knowledge society. An analysis by the Irish government stated, "The capacity to manipulate, store and transmit large quantities of information cheaply has increased at a staggering rate over recent years. The digitisation of information and the associated pervasiveness of the Internet are facilitating a new intensity in the application of knowledge to economic activity, to the extent that it has become the predominant factor in the creation of wealth. As much as 70 to 80 percent of economic growth is now said to be due to new and better knowledge."[11] The Second World Summit on the Knowledge Society, held in Chania, Crete, in September 2009, gave special attention to the following topics:[12] business and enterprise computing; technology-enhanced learning; social and humanistic computing; culture, tourism and technology; e-government and e-democracy; innovation, sustainable development, and strategic management; service science, management and engineering; intellectual and human capital development; ICTs for ecology and the green economy; future prospects for the knowledge society; and technologies and business models for the creative industries. Other uses Sustainable development.svg About this image Scheme of sustainable development: at the confluence of three constituent parts. (2006) People of many nations united by common political and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values are sometimes also said to form a society (such as Judeo-Christian, Eastern, and Western). When used in this context, the term is employed as a means of contrasting two or more "societies" whose members represent alternative conflicting and competing worldviews. Some academic, professional, and scientific associations describe themselves as societies (for example, the American Mathematical Society, the American Society of Civil Engineers, or the Royal Society). In some countries, e.g. the United States, France, and Latin America, the term "society' is used in commerce to denote a partnership between investors or the start of a business. In the United Kingdom, partnerships are not called societies, but co-operatives or mutuals are often known as societies (such as friendly societies and building societies). See also icon Society portal Book: Society Civil society Consumer society Community (outline) Culture (outline) High society (group) Mass society Open society Outline of society Professional society Religion (outline) Scientific society Secret societies Sociobiology Social actions Social capital Social cohesion Societal collapse Social contract Social disintegration Social order Social solidarity Social structure Social work Structure and agency Page semi-protected Culture From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about culture as used in the social sciences and humanities. For uses in the natural sciences, see Cell culture and Tissue culture. For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). Social and political organization varies between different cultures. Celebrations, rituals and patterns of consumption are important aspects of folk culture. Human symbolic expression developed as prehistoric humans reached behavioral modernity. Religion and expressive art are important aspects of human culture. Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/, from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate,")[1] is the social behavior and norms found in human societies. Culture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Some aspects of human behavior, social practices such as culture[clarification needed], expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies such as tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing are said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.[2] In the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false consciousness, and such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions. When used as a count noun, a "culture" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes "culture" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. "bro culture"), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism holds that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Change 3 Early modern discourses 3.1 German Romanticism 3.2 English Romanticism 4 Anthropology 5 Sociology 5.1 Early researchers and development of cultural sociology 6 Cultural studies 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Additional sources 9.1 Books 9.2 Articles 10 External links Etymology The modern term "culture" is based on a term used by the Ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or "cultura animi,"[3] using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, "refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human."[4] In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, "The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly."[5] Culture described by Richard Velkley:[4] ... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of "modern liberalism and Enlightenment". Thus a contrast between "culture" and "civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. In the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."[6] Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, "Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.[7] The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is "the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time."[8] Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as "person[s] of worth within the world of meaning"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.[9][10] The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago, and is often thought to be unique to humans, although some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complex, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that is transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form. Change The Beatles exemplified changing cultural dynamics, not only in music, but fashion and lifestyle. Over a half century after their emergence, they continue to have a worldwide cultural impact. It has been estimated from archaeological data that the human capacity for cumulative culture emerged somewhere between 500 000 - 170 000 years ago.[11] Raimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation.[12] In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.[13] A 19th-century engraving showing Australian natives opposing the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1770 An Assyrian child wearing traditional clothing. Cultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period," driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.[14] Full-length profile portrait of Turkman woman, standing on a carpet at the entrance to a yurt, dressed in traditional clothing and jewelry Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.[15] (See structuration.) Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.[16] Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, hamburgers, fast food in the United States, seemed exotic when introduced into China.[citation needed] "Stimulus diffusion" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. "Direct borrowing," on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products. Acculturation has different meanings, but in this context it refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different culture and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs. Early modern discourses German Romanticism Johann Herder called attention to national cultures. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of "enlightenment" similar to the concept of bildung: "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity."[17] He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: Sapere aude, "Dare to be wise!" In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of bildung: "For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people."[18] Adolf Bastian developed a universal model of culture. In 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "worldview" (Weltanschauung).[19] According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures. In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity of mankind."[20] He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "elementary ideas" (Elementargedanken); different cultures, or different "folk ideas" (Völkergedanken), are local modifications of the elementary ideas.[21] This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.[22] English Romanticism British poet and critic Matthew Arnold viewed "culture" as the cultivation of the humanist ideal. In the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word "culture" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of "the best that has been thought and said in the world."[23] This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of bildung: "...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world."[23] In practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine.[24] As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was identified with "civilization" (from lat. civitas, city). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a "culture" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.[25] British anthropologist Edward Tylor was one of the first English-speaking scholars to use the term culture in an inclusive and universal sense. Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature." According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature[citation needed]; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized." According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects. Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by "the folk," i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as "noble savages" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West. In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms.[26] In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Anthropology Petroglyphs in modern-day Gobustan, Azerbaijan, dating back to 10,000 BCE and indicating a thriving culture Main article: American anthropology Anthropology OutlineHistory Types[show] Archaeological[show] Biological[show] SocialCultural [show] Linguistic[show] Research framework[show] Key concepts[hide] Culture Development Ethnicity Evolution (sociocultural) Gender Kinship and descent Meme Prehistory Race Society Value Colonialism / Postcolonialism Key theories[show] Lists[show] Moai Easter Island InvMH-35-61-1.jpg Anthropology portal vte Although anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture,[27] in the 20th century "culture" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially.[citation needed] American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States, archaeology.[28][29][30][31] The term Kulturbrille, or "culture glasses," coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the "lenses" through which we see our own countries. Martin Lindstrom asserts that Kulturbrille, which allow us to make sense of the culture we inhabit, also "can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately."[32] Sociology Main article: Sociology of culture The sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history."[33] As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be any of two types, non-material culture or material culture.[2] Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present. Cultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term Kultursoziologie (cultural sociology). Cultural sociology was then "reinvented" in the English-speaking world as a product of the "cultural turn" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols.[34] "Culture" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.[citation needed] Early researchers and development of cultural sociology The sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx,[35] Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field. Cultural studies In the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified "culture" with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.[36][37] In the United States, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS.[38] It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall,[39] who succeeded Hoggart as Director.[40] Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as "Western civilization" or "globalism." From the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender.[41] Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television, or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television in order to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture, unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends in order to "fit in" certainly qualifies, since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice. In the context of cultural studies, the idea of a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture.[42] Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of "culture." "Culture" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups)[43] and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.[44] Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E. P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as "capitalist" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the "culture industry" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy. In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, "Cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition."[45] The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom.[citation needed] The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.[citation needed] Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, those who control the means of production (the economic base) essentially control a culture.[citation needed] Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.),[46] which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.[citation needed] Petrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:[47] The first group covers the variables that represent the "efficiency orientation" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance and uncertainty avoidance. The second covers the variables that represent the "social orientation" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism and human orientation. In 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud,[13] who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of meanings), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory. See also icon Culture portal Animal culture Anthropology Cultural area Honour § Cultures of honour and cultures of law Outline of culture Semiotics of culture Culture – Wikipedia book Cultural studies Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action Notes Harper, Douglas (2001). Online Etymology Dictionary. Macionis, John J; Gerber, Linda Marie (2011). Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 53. ISBN 978-0137001613. OCLC 652430995. Cicéron, Marcus Tullius Cicero; Bouhier, Jean (1812). Tusculanes (in French). Nismes: J. Gaude. p. 273. OCLC 457735057. Velkley, Richard L (2002). "The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy". Being after Rousseau: philosophy and culture in question. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 11–30. ISBN 0226852563. OCLC 47930775. Sorrells, Kathryn (2015). Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice. Los Angeles: Sage. ASIN B00DG8M7EU. ISBN 978-1412927444.[page needed] Tylor 1974, 1. James, Paul; Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-1138025721. OCLC 942553107. "Meaning of "culture"". Cambridge English Dictionary. Retrieved July 26, 2015. Pyszczynski, Tom; Solomon, Sheldon; Greenberg, Jeff. Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory. pp. 1–70. doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001. Greenberg, Jeff; Koole, Sander L.; Pyszczynski, Tom (2013). Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology. Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1462514793. Lind, J.; Lindenfors, P.; Ghirlanda, S.; Lidén, K.; Enquist, M. (2013-05-07). "Dating human cultural capacity using phylogenetic principles". Scientific Reports. 3 (1). doi:10.1038/srep01785. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 3646280 Freely accessible. PMID 23648831. Panikkar, Raimon (1991). Pathil, Kuncheria, ed. Religious Pluralism: An Indian Christian Perspective. ISPCK. pp. 252–99. ISBN 978-8172140052. OCLC 25410539. Rein, Raud. Meaning in Action: Outline of an Integral Theory of Culture. Cambridge: Polity. ISBN 978-1509511242. OCLC 944339574. Chigbu, Uchendu Eugene (2015-07-03). "Repositioning culture for development: women and development in a Nigerian rural community". Community, Work & Family. 18 (3): 334–50. doi:10.1080/13668803.2014.981506. ISSN 1366-8803. O'Neil, Dennis (2006). "Culture Change: Processes of Change". Culture Change. Palomar College. Retrieved October 29, 2016. Pringle, Heather (November 20, 1998). "The Slow Birth of Agriculture". Science. 282 (5393): 1446. doi:10.1126/science.282.5393.1446. ISSN 0036-8075. Kant, Immanuel. 1784. "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" (German: "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?") Berlinische Monatsschrift, December (Berlin Monthly) Eldridge, Michael. "The German Bildung Tradition". UNC Charlotte. Retrieved 2017-05-29. Underhill, James W. (2009). Humboldt, Worldview, and Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Köpping, Klaus-Peter (2005). Adolf Bastian and the psychic unity of mankind. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3825839895. OCLC 977343058. Ellis, Ian. "Biography of Adolf Bastian, ethnologist". Today in Science History. Retrieved May 29, 2017. Liron, Tal (2003). Franz Boas and the discovery of culture (PDF) (Thesis). OCLC 52888196. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 2, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2016. More than one of |archiveurl= and |archive-url= specified (help); More than one of |archivedate= and |archive-date= specified (help); More than one of |deadurl= and |dead-url= specified (help) Arnold, Matthew (1869). "Culture and Anarchy". Retrieved May 29, 2017. Williams (1983), p. 90. Cited in Roy, Shuker (1997). Understanding popular music. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 0415107237. OCLC 245910934. argues that contemporary definitions of culture fall into three possibilities or mixture of the following three: "a general process of intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic development" "a particular way of life, whether of a people, period, or a group" "the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity". Bakhtin 1981, p. 4 McClenon, pp. 528–29 Angioni, Giulio (1973). Tre saggi sull'antropologia dell'età coloniale. OCLC 641869481. "anthropology". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved October 30, 2016. Fernandez, James W.; Hanchett, Suzanne L.; Jeganathan, Pradeep; Nicholas, Ralph W.; Robotham, Donald Keith; Smith, Eric A. (August 31, 2015). "anthropology | Brittanica.com". Brittanica.com. Encyclopedia Brittanica. Retrieved October 30, 2016. "What is Anthropology? – Advance Your Career". American Anthropological Association. Retrieved October 30, 2016. Haviland, William A.; McBride, Bunny; Prins, Harald E.L.; Walrath, Dana (2011). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. ISBN 0495810827. OCLC 731048150. Lindström, Martin (2016). Small data : the tiny clues that uncover huge trends. London: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1250080684. OCLC 921994909. Simmel, Georg (1971). Levine, Donald N, ed. Georg Simmel on individuality and social forms: selected writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. xix. ISBN 978-0226757766. Sokal, Alan D. (June 5, 1996). "A Physicist Experiments with Cultural Studies". Lingua Franca. Retrieved October 28, 2016. Physicist Alan Sokal published a paper in a journal of cultural sociology stating that gravity was a social construct that should be examined hermeneutically. See Sokal affair for further details. Berlin, Isaiah; Ryan, Alan (2002). Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0195103262. OCLC 611127754. Williams, Raymond (1983). "Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society". New York: Oxford University Press: 87–93, 236–38. Berger, John (1972). Ways of seeing. Peter Smithn. ISBN 0563122447. OCLC 780459348. "Studying Culture – Reflections and Assessment: An Interview with Richard Hoggart". Media, Culture, and Society. 13. Adams, Tim (September 23, 2007). "Cultural hallmark". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved October 30, 2016. James, Procter (2004). Stuart Hall. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415262675. OCLC 318376213. Sardar, Ziauddin; Van Loon,, Borin; Appignanesi, Richard (1994). Introducing Cultural Studies. New York: Totem Books. ISBN 978-1840465877. OCLC 937991291. Fiske, John; Turner, Graeme; Hodge, Robert Ian Vere (1987). Myths of Oz: reading Australian popular culture. London: Allen and Unwin. ISBN 0043303919. OCLC 883364628. Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhaĭlovich; Holquist, Michael (1981). The dialogic imagination four essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 4. OCLC 872436352. "Comparative Cultural Studies". Purdue University Press. 2015. Retrieved October 30, 2016. Lindlof, Thomas R; Taylor, Bryan C (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods (2nd ed.). Sage. p. 60. ISBN 978-0761924937. OCLC 780825710. du Gay, Paul, ed. (1997). Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman. Sage. ISBN 978-0761954026. OCLC 949857570. Petrakis, Panagiotis; Kostis, Pantelis (2013-12-01). "Economic growth and cultural change". The Journal of Socio-Economics. 47: 147–57. doi:10.1016/j.socec.2013.02.011. Additional sources Books Barker, C. (2004). The Sage dictionary of cultural studies. Sage. Terrence Deacon (1997). The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain. New York and London: W. W. Norton. Ralph L. Holloway Jr. (1969). "Culture: A Human domain". Current Anthropology. 10 (4): 395–412. doi:10.1086/201036. Dell Hymes (1969). Reinventing Anthropology. James, Paul; Szeman, Imre (2010). Globalization and Culture, Vol. 3: Global-Local Consumption. London: Sage Publications. Michael Tomasello (1999). "The Human Adaptation for Culture". Annual Review of Anthropology. 28: 509–29. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509. Whorf, Benjamin Lee (1941). "The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language". Language, Culture, and Personality: Essays in Honor of Edward Sapir. Menasha, WI: Sapir Memorial Publication Fund. Walter Taylor (1948). A Study of Archeology. Memoir 69, American Anthropological Association. Carbondale IL: Southern Illinois University Press. "Adolf Bastian", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, January 27, 2009 Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization, vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU societal research. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2881550045. Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy. New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28. Bakhtin, M. M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. ISBN 978-0252064456. Barzilai, Gad. 2003. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472113151 Benedict, Ruth (1934). "Patterns of Culture". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521291644 Michael C. Carhart, The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University press, 2007. Cohen, Anthony P. 1985. The Symbolic Construction of Community. Routledge: New York, Dawkins, R. 1982. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Paperback ed., 1999. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0192880512 Clothing From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search "Outfit" redirects here. For other uses, see Outfit (disambiguation). Clothing in history, showing (from top) Egyptians, Ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, and 13th through 15th century Europeans. Clothing (also known as clothes, apparel and attire) is a collective term for garments, items worn on the body. Clothing can be made of textiles, animal skin, or other thin sheets of materials put together. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depend on body type, social, and geographic considerations. Some clothing can be gender-specific. Physically, clothing serves many purposes: it can serve as protection from the elements and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns and prickles by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions, and they can provide a hygienic barrier, keeping infectious and toxic materials away from the body. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation. Wearing clothes is also a social norm, and being deprived of clothing in front of others may be embarrassing, or not wearing clothes in public such that genitals, breasts or buttocks are visible could be seen as indecent exposure. Contents 1 Origin of clothing 2 Functions 3 Scholarship 4 Cultural aspects 4.1 Gender differentiation 4.2 Social status 4.3 Religion 5 Origin and history 5.1 First recorded use 5.2 Making clothing 6 Contemporary clothing 6.1 Western dress code 6.2 Spread of western styles 6.3 Ethnic and cultural heritage 6.4 Sport and activity 6.5 Fashion 6.6 Future trends 7 Political issues 7.1 Working conditions in the garments industry 7.2 Fur 8 Life cycle 8.1 Clothing maintenance 8.2 Laundry, ironing, storage 8.3 Non-iron 8.4 Mending 8.5 Recycling 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Origin of clothing See also: Evolution of hair and History of clothing and textiles There is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice which estimates the introduction of clothing at roughly 42,000–72,000 years ago.[1][2][3][4][5] Functions A baby wearing many items of winter clothing: headband, cap, fur-lined coat, shawl and sweater The most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, while in cold climates its thermal insulation properties are generally more important. The shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other superficial layers are normally removed when entering a warm home, particularly if one is residing or sleeping there. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing are generally worn in warmer seasons and regions than in colder ones. Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status.[6] In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, and social status. Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a very wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs to woven materials, to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses), worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or those that serve a function other than protection (eyeglasses), are normally considered accessories rather than clothing, except for shoes. Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as from the sun. However, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc., offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances. Conversely, clothing may protect the environment from the clothing wearer, as with doctors wearing medical scrubs. Humans have shown extreme invention in devising clothing solutions to environmental hazards. Examples include: space suits, air conditioned clothing, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. Meanwhile, the distinction between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut, since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value and clothes designed for function often consider fashion in their design. Wearing clothes also has social implications. They cover parts of the body that social norms require to be covered, act as a form of adornment, and serve other social purposes. Someone who lacks the means to procure reasonable clothing due to poverty or affordability is sometimes said to be scruffy, ragged, or shabby.[7] Scholarship Although dissertations on clothing and its function appear from the 19th century as colonising countries dealt with new environments,[8] concerted scientific research into psycho-social, physiological and other functions of clothing (e.g. protective, cartage) occurred in the first half of the 20th century, with publications such as J. C. Flügel's Psychology of Clothes in 1930,[6] and Newburgh's seminal Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing in 1949.[9] By 1968, the field of environmental physiology had advanced and expanded significantly, but the science of clothing in relation to environmental physiology had changed little.[10] While considerable research has since occurred and the knowledge-base has grown significantly, the main concepts remain unchanged, and indeed Newburgh's book is still cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development.[11] Cultural aspects Gender differentiation Former 3rd Duke of Fife wearing a traditional Scottish kilt (1984) Advisor to US President and businesswoman Ivanka Trump (right) along with Japanese PM Shinzō Abe wearing Western-style business suits as per their gender, 2017 In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate. The differences are in styles, colors, and fabrics. In Western societies, skirts, dresses and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties are usually seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively male clothing, but can nowadays be worn by both genders. Male clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles are available for females. Males are typically allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally more or less acceptable for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as unusual. In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. Islam requires women to wear more modest forms of attire, usually hijab. What qualifies as "modest" varies in different Muslim societies. However, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men are. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear for modesty range from the head-scarf to the burqa. Men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such as togas or kilts, especially on ceremonial occasions. Such garments were (in previous times) often worn as normal daily clothing by men. Clothing designed to be worn by either sex is called unisex clothing. Unisex clothes, such as T-shirts, tends to be cut straighter to fit a wider variety of bodies. The majority of unisex clothing styles have started out as menswear, but some articles, like the fedora, were originally worn by women. Social status A Barong Tagalog made for a wedding ceremony. Alim Khan's bemedaled robe sends a social message about his wealth, status, and power. In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient Rome, for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa, or carved whale teeth. In China, before establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is instead signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice. Religion See also: Category:Religious vesture Nicolas Trigault, in Ming-style Confucian hanfu, by Rubens. Muslim men traditionally wear white robes and a cap during prayers Religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may also be worn every day as a marker for special religious status. For example, Jains and Muslim men wear unstitched cloth pieces when performing religious ceremonies. The unstitched cloth signifies unified and complete devotion to the task at hand, with no digression.[citation needed] Sikhs wear a turban as it is a part of their religion. The cleanliness of religious dresses in Eastern religions like Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Islam and Jainism is of paramount importance since it indicates purity. Clothing figures prominently in the Bible where it appears in numerous contexts, the more prominent ones being: the story of Adam and Eve who made coverings for themselves out of fig leaves, Joseph's cloak, Judah and Tamar, Mordecai and Esther. Furthermore, the priests officiating in the Temple had very specific garments, the lack of which made one liable to death. The Quran says about husbands and wives, regarding clothing: "...They are clothing/covering (Libaas) for you; and you for them" (chapter 2:187). Jewish ritual also requires rending of one's upper garment as a sign of mourning. This practice is found in the Bible when Jacob hears of the apparent death of his son Joseph.[12] Origin and history Main article: History of clothing See also: History of Western fashion and Category:History of clothing First recorded use According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that were draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988.[13] Dyed flax fibers that could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia that date back to 36,000 BP.[14][15] Scientists are still debating when people started wearing clothes. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, have conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that suggests clothing originated quite recently, around 170,000 years ago. Body lice is an indicator of clothes-wearing, since most humans have sparse body hair, and lice thus require human clothing to survive. Their research suggests the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. However, a second group of researchers using similar genetic methods estimate that clothing originated around 540,000 years ago [16] For now, the date of the origin of clothing remains unresolved. Making clothing See also: Garment industry, knitting, and weaving Some human cultures, such as the various people of the Arctic Circle, traditionally make their clothing entirely of prepared and decorated furs and skins. Other cultures supplemented or replaced leather and skins with cloth: woven, knitted, or twined from various animal and vegetable fibers including wool, linen, cotton, silk, hemp, and ramie. Although modern consumers may take the production of clothing for granted, making fabric by hand is a tedious and labor-intensive process involving fiber making, spinning, and weaving. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized – with the powered loom – during the Industrial Revolution. Different cultures have evolved various ways of creating clothes out of cloth. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit – for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent, the Scottish kilt or the Javanese sarong. The clothes may simply be tied up, as is the case of the first two garments; or pins or belts hold the garments in place, as in the case of the latter two. The precious cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes or the same person at different sizes can wear the garment. Another approach involves measuring, cutting, and sewing the cloth by hand or with a sewing machine. Clothing can be cut from a sewing pattern and adjusted by a tailor to a person's measurements. An adjustable sewing mannequin or dress form is used to create form fitting clothing. Fabrics are expensive and efforts are made to use every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing. The tailor may cut triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and then add them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for men's shirts and women's chemises take this approach. These remnants can also be reused to make patchwork hats, vests, and skirts. Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; home sewers may turn them into quilts. In the thousands of years that humans have spent constructing clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which have been reconstructed from surviving garments, photos, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history serves as a source of inspiration to current fashion designers, as well as a topic of professional interest to costumers constructing for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment. Contemporary clothing Unbalanced scales.svg The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Museo del Bicentenario - Galera de Roberto M. Ortiz.jpg Part of a series on Western dress codes and corresponding attires Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Phillip sit on thrones before a full Parliament.jpg Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Phillip at formal opening of the Parliament of Canada (1957) Formal i.e. full dress (white tie)[show] Semi-formal i.e. half dress (black tie)[show] Informal i.e. undress (dress clothes)[show] Casual (more varying interpretations)[show] Supplementary (along varying regulations)[show] Legend: Emoji u2600.svg = Day (before 6 p.m.) Emoji u1f319.svg = Evening (after 6 p.m.) = Bow tie colour BathingSuit1920s.jpg Fashion portal Portal-puzzle.svg Contents/Culture and the arts portal vte Western dress code Main article: Western dress code The Western dress code has changed over the past 500+ years. The mechanization of the textile industry made many varieties of cloth widely available at affordable prices. Styles have changed, and the availability of synthetic fabrics has changed the definition of "stylish". In the latter half of the 20th century, blue jeans became very popular, and are now worn to events that normally demand formal attire. Activewear has also become a large and growing market. Jeans in the Western dress code are worn by both men and women. There are several unique styles of jeans found which include: high rise jeans, mid rise jeans, low rise jeans, bootcut jeans, straight jeans, cropped jeans, skinny jeans, cuffed jeans, boyfriend jeans, and capri jeans. The licensing of designer names was pioneered by designers like Pierre Cardin in the 1960s and has been a common practice within the fashion industry from about the 1970s. Among the more popular include Marc Jacobs and Gucci, named for Marc Jacobs and Guccio Gucci respectively. Spread of western styles A tourist couple (top) and university students (bottom) in casual clothes in USA. By the early years of the 21st century, western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the periods of European colonialism. The process of cultural dissemination has perpetuated over the centuries as Western media corporations have penetrated markets throughout the world, spreading Western culture and styles. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Donated used clothing from Western countries are also delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations. Ethnic and cultural heritage People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, like weddings and cultural holidays. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu. Sport and activity Main articles: Activewear and Sportswear (fashion) Most sports and physical activities are practiced wearing special clothing, for practical, comfort or safety reasons. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-shirts, tennis shirts, leotards, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving or surfing), salopettes (for skiing) and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex materials are often used as base layers to soak up sweat. Spandex is also preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as volleyball, wrestling, track & field, dance, gymnastics and swimming. Fashion shows are often the source of the latest trends in clothing fashions. Photo of a model in a modern gown reflecting the current fashion trend at a Haute couture fashion show. Fashion Main articles: Fashion and 2010s in fashion Paris set the fashion trends for Europe and North America 1900-1940.[17] In the 1920s the goal was all about getting loose. Women wore dresses all day, everyday. Day dresses had a drop waist, which was a sash or belt around the low waist or hip and a skirt that hung anywhere from the ankle on up to the knee, never above. Daywear had sleeves(long to mid-bicep) and a skirt that was straight, pleaded, hank hem, or tired. Jewelry was less conspicuous.[18] Hair was often bobbed, giving a boyish look.[19] In the 21st century a diverse range of styles exist in fashion, varying by geography, exposure to modern media, economic conditions, and ranging from expensive haute couture to traditional garb, to thrift store grunge. Fashion shows are events for designers to show off new and often extravagant designs. Future trends Main article: Fashion forecasting This section contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The world of clothing is always changing, as new cultural influences meet technological innovations. Researchers in scientific labs have been developing prototypes for fabrics that can serve functional purposes well beyond their traditional roles, for example, clothes that can automatically adjust their temperature, repel bullets, project images, and generate electricity. Some practical advances already available to consumers are bullet-resistant garments made with kevlar and stain-resistant fabrics that are coated with chemical mixtures that reduce the absorption of liquids. New blends of Spandex cotton blends allow for form fitting and stretching of closer fitting mass produced patterns. New mesh materials allow for better breathe-ability in shoes. New insulation fibers and batting make lighter raiment that provide warmth in cold or wet weather, and recent advances in coatings for fabrics or down also repel water. Political issues Working conditions in the garments industry Further information: Garment industry [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) Garments factory in Bangladesh Safety garb for women workers in Los Angeles, c. 1943, was designed to prevent occupational accidents among female war workers. Though mechanization transformed most aspects of human industry by the mid-20th century, garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Mass-produced clothing is often made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops, typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured similarly.[citation needed] Coalitions of NGOs, designers (including Katharine Hamnett, American Apparel, Veja, Quiksilver, eVocal, and Edun) and campaign groups like the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) and the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights as well as textile and clothing trade unions have sought to improve these conditions as much as possible by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the workers. Outsourcing production to low wage countries like Bangladesh, China, India and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports, was deemed a protectionist measure.[citation needed] Although many countries recognize treaties like the International Labour Organization, which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.[citation needed] Despite the strong reactions that "sweatshops" evoked among critics of globalization, the production of textiles has functioned as a consistent industry for developing nations providing work and wages, whether construed as exploitative or not, to many thousands of people. Fur Main article: Fur clothing The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. It is currently associated in developed countries with expensive, designer clothing, although fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth and protection. Once uncontroversial, it has recently been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA, along with other animal rights and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel. Life cycle Clothing maintenance Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds skin cells and body oils, and exudes sweat, urine, and feces. From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion, and dirt assault garments. Fleas and lice can hide in seams. Worn clothing, if not cleaned and refurbished, itches, becomes outworn, and loses functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics thin or tear, and zippers fail). Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials like these inevitably age. However, most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt). Laundry, ironing, storage Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering, ranging from early methods of pounding clothes against rocks in running streams, to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). Hot water washing (boiling), chemical cleaning and ironing are all traditional methods of sterilizing fabrics for hygiene purposes. Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing. Once clothes have been laundered and possibly ironed, they are usually hung on clothes hangers or folded, to keep them fresh until they are worn. Clothes are folded to allow them to be stored compactly, to prevent creasing, to preserve creases or to present them in a more pleasing manner, for instance when they are put on sale in stores. Non-iron Main article: Permanent press A resin used for making non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde, which could cause contact dermatitis for some people; no disclosure requirements exist, and in 2008 the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested formaldehyde in clothing and found that generally the highest levels were in non-wrinkle shirts and pants.[20] In 1999, a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after 6 months after washing, 7 of 27 shirts had levels in excess of 75 ppm, which is a safe limit for direct skin exposure.[21] Mending See also: Darning When the raw material – cloth – was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the tear was practically invisible. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the labor required to repair it. Many people buy a new piece of clothing rather than spend time mending. The thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems. Recycling Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It can also be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Used clothing is also often collected on an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries. Globally, used clothes are worth $4 billion[22] with the US as the leading exporter at $575 million.[23] There are many concerns about the life cycle of synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals.[weasel words] Unlike natural fibers, their source is not renewable and they are not biodegradable.[24] See also Skin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Animal skin) Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the outer covering of animals. For skin in humans, see human skin. For other uses, see Skin (disambiguation). Skin Elephant Skin.jpg Skin of an elephant Details Identifiers Latin Cutis MeSH D012867 TA A16.0.00.002 FMA 7163 Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata] Skin is the soft outer tissue covering of vertebrates. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton, have different developmental origin, structure and chemical composition. The adjective cutaneous means "of the skin" (from Latin cutis, skin). In mammals, the skin is an organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of ectodermal tissue, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs. Skin of a different nature exists in amphibians, reptiles, and birds.[1] All mammals have some hair on their skin, even marine mammals like whales, dolphins, and porpoises which appear to be hairless. The skin interfaces with the environment and is the first line of defense from external factors. For example, the skin plays a key role in protecting the body against pathogens[2] and excessive water loss.[3] Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, and the production of vitamin D folates. Severely damaged skin may heal by forming scar tissue. This is sometimes discoloured and depigmented. The thickness of skin also varies from location to location on an organism. In humans for example, the skin located under the eyes and around the eyelids is the thinnest skin in the body at 0.5 mm thick, and is one of the first areas to show signs of aging such as "crows feet" and wrinkles. The skin on the palms and the soles of the feet is 4 mm thick and is the thickest skin on the body. The speed and quality of wound healing in skin is promoted by the reception of estrogen.[4][5][6] Fur is dense hair.[7] Primarily, fur augments the insulation the skin provides but can also serve as a secondary sexual characteristic or as camouflage. On some animals, the skin is very hard and thick, and can be processed to create leather. Reptiles and fish have hard protective scales on their skin for protection, and birds have hard feathers, all made of tough β-keratins. Amphibian skin is not a strong barrier, especially regarding the passage of chemicals via skin and is often subject to osmosis and diffusive forces. For example, a frog sitting in an anesthetic solution would be sedated quickly, as the chemical diffuses through its skin. Amphibian skin plays key roles in everyday survival and their ability to exploit a wide range of habitats and ecological conditions.[8] Contents 1 Structure in humans and other mammals 1.1 Epidermis 1.2 Basement membrane 1.3 Dermis 1.3.1 Papillary region 1.3.2 Reticular region 1.4 Subcutaneous tissue 1.5 Detailed cross section 2 Structure in Fish, Amphibians, Birds, and Reptiles 2.1 Fish 2.2 Amphibians 2.2.1 Overview 2.2.2 Granular Glands 2.2.3 Mucous Glands 2.3 Birds and reptiles 3 Development 4 Functions 4.1 Mechanics 4.2 Aging 5 Society and culture 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Structure in humans and other mammals See also: Human skin Dermis Gray942.png The distribution of the bloodvessels in the skin of the sole of the foot. (Corium – TA alternate term for dermis – is labeled at upper right.) Gray940.png A diagrammatic sectional view of the skin (click on image to magnify). (Dermis labeled at center right.) Identifiers MeSH D012867 TA A16.0.00.002 FMA 7163 Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata] (See also: image rotating (1.1 mb)) Optical coherence tomogram of fingertip, depicting stratum corneum (~500 µm thick) with stratum disjunctum on top and stratum lucidum (connection to stratum spinosum) in the middle. At the bottom superficial parts of the dermis. Sweatducts are clearly visible.[citation needed] Mammalian skin is composed of two primary layers: the epidermis, which provides waterproofing and serves as a barrier to infection; and the dermis, which serves as a location for the appendages of skin; Epidermis Main article: Epidermis The epidermis is composed of the outermost layers of the skin. It forms a protective barrier over the body's surface, responsible for keeping water in the body and preventing pathogens from entering, and is a stratified squamous epithelium,[9] composed of proliferating basal and differentiated suprabasal keratinocytes. Keratinocytes are the major cells, constituting 95% of the epidermis,[9] while Merkel cells, melanocytes and Langerhans cells are also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following strata or layers (beginning with the outermost layer):[10] Stratum corneum Stratum lucidum (only in palms and soles) Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum germinativum (also called the stratum basale) Keratinocytes in the stratum basale proliferate through mitosis and the daughter cells move up the strata changing shape and composition as they undergo multiple stages of cell differentiation to eventually become anucleated. During that process, keratinocytes will become highly organized, forming cellular junctions (desmosomes) between each other and secreting keratin proteins and lipids which contribute to the formation of an extracellular matrix and provide mechanical strength to the skin.[11] Keratinocytes from the stratum corneum are eventually shed from the surface (desquamation). The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished by diffusion from blood capillaries extending to the upper layers of the dermis. Basement membrane Main article: Basement membrane The epidermis and dermis are separated by a thin sheet of fibers called the basement membrane, and is made through the action of both tissues. The basement membrane controls the traffic of the cells and molecules between the dermis and epidermis but also serves, through the binding of a variety of cytokines and growth factors, as a reservoir for their controlled release during physiological remodeling or repair processes.[12] Dermis Main article: Dermis The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis provides tensile strength and elasticity to the skin through an extracellular matrix composed of collagen fibrils, microfibrils, and elastic fibers, embedded in hyaluronan and proteoglycans.[11] Skin proteoglycans are varied and have very specific locations.[13] For example, hyaluronan, versican and decorin are present throughout the dermis and epidermis extracellular matrix, whereas biglycan and perlecan are only found in the epidermis. It harbors many mechanoreceptors (nerve endings) that provide the sense of touch and heat through nociceptors and thermoreceptors. It also contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, lymphatic vessels and blood vessels. The blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment and waste removal from its own cells as well as for the epidermis. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis through a basement membrane and is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis, called the papillary region, and a deep thicker area known as the reticular region. Papillary region The papillary region is composed of loose areolar connective tissue.This is named for its fingerlike projections called papillae that extend toward the epidermis. The papillae provide the dermis with a "bumpy" surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection between the two layers of skin. Reticular region The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue, and receives its name from the dense concentration of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers that weave throughout it. These protein fibers give the dermis its properties of strength, extensibility, and elasticity. Also located within the reticular region are the roots of the hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, receptors, nails, and blood vessels. Subcutaneous tissue Main article: Subcutaneous tissue The subcutaneous tissue (also hypodermis) is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (the subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body. Microorganisms like Staphylococcus epidermidis colonize the skin surface. The density of skin flora depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from bacteria residing in the deeper areas of the hair follicle, gut and urogenital openings. Detailed cross section Skin layers, of both the hairy and hairless skin Structure in Fish, Amphibians, Birds, and Reptiles Fish See also: Fish scales The epidermis of fish and of most amphibians consists entirely of live cells, with only minimal quantities of keratin in the cells of the superficial layer. It is generally permeable, and in the case of many amphibians, may actually be a major respiratory organ. The dermis of bony fish typically contains relatively little of the connective tissue found in tetrapods. Instead, in most species, it is largely replaced by solid, protective bony scales. Apart from some particularly large dermal bones that form parts of the skull, these scales are lost in tetrapods, although many reptiles do have scales of a different kind, as do pangolins. Cartilaginous fish have numerous tooth-like denticles embedded in their skin, in place of true scales. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands are both unique to mammals, but other types of skin gland are found in other vertebrates. Fish typically have a numerous individual mucus-secreting skin cells that aid in insulation and protection, but may also have poison glands, photophores, or cells that produce a more watery, serous fluid. In amphibians, the mucus cells are gathered together to form sac-like glands. Most living amphibians also possess granular glands in the skin, that secrete irritating or toxic compounds.[14] Although melanin is found in the skin of many species, in the reptiles, the amphibians, and fish, the epidermis is often relatively colourless. Instead, the colour of the skin is largely due to chromatophores in the dermis, which, in addition to melanin, may contain guanine or carotenoid pigments. Many species, such as chameleons and flounders may be able to change the colour of their skin by adjusting the relative size of their chromatophores.[14] Amphibians See also: amphibians Overview Amphibians possess two types of glands, mucous and granular (serous). Both of these glands are part of the integument and thus considered cutaneous. Mucous and granular glands are both divided into three different sections which all connect to structure the gland as a whole. The three individual parts of the gland are the duct, the intercalary region, and lastly the alveolar gland (sac). Structurally, the duct is derived via keratinocytes and passes through to the surface of the epidermal or outer skin layer thus allowing external secretions of the body. The gland alveolus is a sac shaped structure which is found on the bottom or base region of the granular gland. The cells in this sac specialize in secretion. Between the alveolar gland and the duct is the intercalary system which can be summed up as a transitional region connecting the duct to the grand alveolar beneath the epidermal skin layer. In general, granular glands are larger in size than the mucous glands, however mucous glands hold a much greater majority in overall number.[15] Frog Gland Anatomy- A: Mucous gland (alveolus), B: Chromophore, C: Granular Gland (alveolus), D: Connective Tissue, E: Stratum Corneum, F: Transition Zone (intercalary region), G: Epidermis (Where the duct resides), H: Dermis Granular glands can be identified as venomous and often differ in the type of toxin as well as the concentrations of secretions across various orders and species within the amphibians. They are located in clusters differing in concentration depending on amphibian taxa. The toxins can be fatal to most vertebrates or have no effect against others. These glands are alveolar meaning they structurally have little sacs in which venom is produced and held before it is secreted upon defensive behaviors.[15] Structurally, the ducts of the granular gland initially maintain a cylindrical shape. However, when the ducts become mature and full of toxic fluid, the base of the ducts become swollen due to the pressure from the inside. This causes the epidermal layer to form a pit like opening on the surface of the duct in which the inner fluid will be secreted in an upwards fashion.[16] The intercalary region of granular glands are more developed and mature in comparison with mucous glands. This region resides as a ring of cells surrounding the basal portion of the duct which are argued to have an ectodermal muscular nature due to their influence over the lumen (space inside the tube) of the duct with dilation and constriction functions during secretions. The cells are found radially around the duct and provide a distinct attachment site for muscle fibers around the gland's body.[16] The gland alveolus is a sac that is divided into three specific regions/layers. The outer layer or tunica fibrosa is composed of densely packed connective-tissue which connects with fibers from the spongy intermediate layer where elastic fibers as well as nerves reside. The nerves send signals to the muscles as well as the epithelial layers. Lastly, the epithelium or tunica propria encloses the gland.[16] Mucous Glands Mucous glands are non-venomous and offer a different functionality for amphibians than granular. Mucous glands cover the entire surface area of the amphibian body and specialize in keeping the body lubricated. There are many other functions of the mucous glands such as controlling the pH, thermoregulation, adhesive properties to the environment, anti-predator behaviors (slimy to the grasp), chemical communication, even anti-bacterial/viral properties for protection against pathogens.[15] The ducts of the mucous gland appear as cylindrical vertical tubes which break through the epidermal layer to the surface of the skin. The cells lining the inside of the ducts are oriented with their longitudinal axis forming 90 degree angles surrounding the duct in a helical fashion.[16] Intercalary cells react identically to those of granular glands but on a smaller scale. Among the amphibians, there are taxa which contain a modified intercalary region (depending on the function of the glands), yet the majority share the same structure.[16] The alveolor of mucous glands are much more simple and only consist of an epithelium layer as well as connective tissue which forms a cover over the gland. This gland lacks a tunica propria and appears to have delicate and intricate fibers which pass over the gland's muscle and epithelial layers.[16] Birds and reptiles Main article: Reptile scales The epidermis of birds and reptiles is closer to that of mammals, with a layer of dead keratin-filled cells at the surface, to help reduce water loss. A similar pattern is also seen in some of the more terrestrial amphibians such as toads. However, in all of these animals there is no clear differentiation of the epidermis into distinct layers, as occurs in humans, with the change in cell type being relatively gradual. The mammalian epidermis always possesses at least a stratum germinativum and stratum corneum, but the other intermediate layers found in humans are not always distinguishable. Hair is a distinctive feature of mammalian skin, while feathers are (at least among living species) similarly unique to birds.[14] Birds and reptiles have relatively few skin glands, although there may be a few structures for specific purposes, such as pheromone-secreting cells in some reptiles, or the uropygial gland of most birds.[14] Development Cutaneous structures arise from the epidermis and include a variety of features such as hair, feathers, claws and nails. During embryogenesis, the epidermis splits into two layers: the periderm (which is lost) and the basal layer. The basal layer is a stem cell layer and through asymmetrical divisions, becomes the source of skin cells throughout life. It is maintained as a stem cell layer through an autocrine signal, TGF-a, and through paracrine signal FGF7 aka keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) produced by the dermis below the basal cells. In mice, over-expression of these factors leads to an overproduction of granule cells and thick skin.[citation needed] Hair and feathers are formed in a regular pattern and it is believed to be the result of a reaction-diffusion system. This reaction-diffusion system combines an activator, Sonic hedgehog, with an inhibitor, BMP4 or BMP2, to form clusters of cells in a regular pattern. Sonic hedgehog-expressing epidermal cells induce the condensation of cells in the mesoderm. The clusters of mesodermal cells signal back to the epidermis to form the appropriate structure for that position. BMP signals from the epidermis inhibit the formation of placodes in nearby ectoderm.[citation needed] It is believed that the mesoderm defines the pattern. The epidermis instructs the mesodermal cells to condense and then the mesoderm instructs the epidermis of what structure to make through a series of reciprocal inductions. Transplantation experiments involving frog and newt epidermis indicated that the mesodermal signals are conserved between species but the epidermal response is species-specific meaning that the mesoderm instructs the epidermis of its position and the epidermis uses this information to make a specific structure.[citation needed] Functions Skin performs the following functions: Bone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the skeletal organ. For other uses, see Bone (disambiguation) and Bones (disambiguation). This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology. Bone Left femur of extinct elephant, Alaska, Ice Age Wellcome L0057714.jpg A bone dating from the Pleistocene Ice Age of an extinct species of elephant. Bertazzo S - SEM deproteined bone - wistar rat - x10k.tif A scanning electronic micrograph of bone at 10,000x magnification. Identifiers TA A02.0.00.000 TH H3.01.00.0.00001 FMA 30317 Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata] A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton. Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple functions. Bone tissue (osseous tissue) is a hard tissue, a type of dense connective tissue. It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity. Bone tissue is made up of different types of bone cells. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are involved in the formation and mineralization of bone; osteoclasts are involved in the resorption of bone tissue. Modified (flattened) osteoblasts become the lining cells that form a protective layer on the bone surface. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly collagen called ossein and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts. Bone tissue is a mineralized tissue of two types, cortical bone and cancellous bone. Other types of tissue found in bones include bone marrow, endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. In the human body at birth, there are over 270 bones,[1] but many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult,[2] not counting numerous small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear. The Latin word for bone is os, hence the many terms that use it as a prefix – such as osseous and osteopathy. Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Cortical bone 1.2 Cancellous bone 1.3 Bone marrow 1.4 Bone tissue 1.5 Extracellular matrix 1.6 Types 1.7 Terminology 2 Development 3 Function 3.1 Mechanical 3.2 Synthetic 3.3 Metabolic 3.4 Remodeling 3.5 Bone volume 4 Clinical significance 4.1 Fractures 4.2 Tumors 4.3 Cancer 4.4 Painful conditions 4.5 Osteoporosis 4.6 Osteopathy 5 Osteology 6 Other animals 7 Society and culture 8 Additional images 9 See also 10 References 11 Footnotes 12 External links Structure Cross-section of bone Bone is not uniformly solid, but includes a tough matrix. This matrix makes up about 30% of the bone and the other 70% is of salts that give strength to it. The matrix is made up of between 90 and 95% collagen fibers, and the remainder is ground substance.[3] The primary tissue of bone, bone tissue (osseous tissue), is relatively hard and lightweight. Its matrix is mostly made up of a composite material incorporating the inorganic mineral calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxylapatite (this is the bone mineral that gives bones their rigidity) and collagen, an elastic protein which improves fracture resistance.[4] The collagen of bone is known as ossein.[5] Bone is formed by the hardening of this matrix around entrapped cells. When these cells become entrapped from osteoblasts they become osteocytes.[citation needed] Cortical bone Cross-section details of a long bone The hard outer layer of bones is composed of cortical bone also called compact bone being much denser than cancellous bone. It forms the hard exterior (cortex) of bones. The cortical bone gives bone its smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult human skeleton.[citation needed] It facilitates bone's main functions: to support the whole body, protect organs, provide levers for movement, and store and release chemical elements, mainly calcium. It consists of multiple microscopic columns, each called an osteon. Each column is multiple layers of osteoblasts and osteocytes around a central canal called the haversian canal. Volkmann's canals at right angles connect the osteons together. The columns are metabolically active, and as bone is reabsorbed and created the nature and location of the cells within the osteon will change. Cortical bone is covered by a periosteum on its outer surface, and an endosteum on its inner surface. The endosteum is the boundary between the cortical bone and the cancellous bone.[6] The primary anatomical and functional unit of cortical bone is the osteon. Cancellous bone Micrograph of cancellous bone Cancellous bone, also called trabecular or spongy bone, [6] is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell porous network. Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone because it is less dense. This makes it weaker and more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, near joints and in the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and often contains red bone marrow where haematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cancellous bone is the trabecula. The trabeculae are aligned towards the mechanical load distribution that a bone experiences within long bones such as the femur. As far as short bones are concerned, trabecular alignment has been studied in the vertebral pedicle.[7] Thin formations of osteoblasts covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces,[8] known as trabeculae. Within these spaces are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells.[8] Trabecular marrow is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow. Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone.[9] The words cancellous and trabecular refer to the tiny lattice-shaped units (trabeculae) that form the tissue. It was first illustrated accurately in the engravings of Crisóstomo Martinez.[10] Bone marrow Bone marrow, also known as myeloid tissue in red bone marrow, can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow or hematopoietic marrow, but as the child ages the hematopoietic fraction decreases in quantity and the fatty/ yellow fraction called marrow adipose tissue (MAT) increases in quantity. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the bone marrow of the femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones.[11] Bone tissue Bone cells Bone is a metabolically active tissue composed of several types of cells. These cells include osteoblasts, which are involved in the creation and mineralization of bone tissue, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, but osteoclasts are derived from the same cells that differentiate to form macrophages and monocytes.[12] Within the marrow of the bone there are also hematopoietic stem cells. These cells give rise to other cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.[13] Osteoblast Light micrograph of cancellous decalcified bone displaying osteoblasts actively synthesizing osteoid, containing two osteocytes. Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells. They are located on the surface of osteon seams and make a protein mixture known as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone.[14] The osteoid seam is a narrow region of newly formed organic matrix, not yet mineralized, located on the surface of a bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen. Osteoblasts also manufacture hormones, such as prostaglandins, to act on the bone itself. The osteoblast creates and repairs new bone by actually building around itself. First, the osteoblast puts up collagen fibers. These collagen fibers are used as a framework for the osteoblasts' work. The osteoblast then deposits calcium phosphate which is hardened by hydroxide and bicarbonate ions. The brand new bone created by the osteoblast is called osteoid.[15] Once the osteoblast is finished working it is actually trapped inside the bone once it hardens. When the osteoblast becomes trapped, it becomes known as an osteocyte.[16] Other osteoblasts remain on the top of the new bone and are used to protect the underlying bone, these become known as lining cells. Osteocyte Osteocytes are mostly inactive osteoblasts.[12] Osteocytes originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by bone matrix that they themselves produced.[6] The spaces they occupy are known as lacunae. Osteocytes have many processes that reach out to meet osteoblasts and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication.[citation needed] Osteocytes remain in contact with other cells in the bone through gap junctions—coupled cell processes—which pass through small channels in the bone matrix called the canaliculi. Osteoclast Osteoclasts are very large multinucleate cells that are responsible for the breakdown of bones by the process of bone resorption. New bone is then formed by the osteoblasts. Bone is constantly remodelled by the resorption of osteoclasts and created by osteoblasts.[12] Osteoclasts are large cells with multiple nuclei located on bone surfaces in what are called Howship's lacunae (or resorption pits). These lacunae are the result of surrounding bone tissue that has been reabsorbed.[17] Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with phagocytic-like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages.[12] Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival, active enzymes, such as tartrate resistant acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate.[citation needed] The reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts also plays a role in calcium homeostasis.[17] Extracellular matrix Bones consist of living cells embedded in a mineralized organic matrix. This matrix consists of organic components, mainly Type I collagen – "organic" referring to materials produced as a result of the human body – and inorganic components, primarily hydroxyapatite and other salts of calcium and phosphate. Above 30% of the acellular part of bone consists of the organic components, and 70% of salts.[18] The collagen fibers give bone its tensile strength, and the interspersed crystals of hydroxyapatite give bone its compressive strength. These effects are synergistic.[18] The inorganic composition of bone (bone mineral) is primarily formed from salts of calcium and phosphate, the major salt being hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2).[18] The exact composition of the matrix may be subject to change over time due to nutrition and biomineralization, with the ratio of calcium to phosphate varying between 1.3 and 2.0 (per weight), and trace minerals such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and carbonate also being found.[18] Type I collagen composes 90–95% of the organic matrix, with remainder of the matrix being a homogenous liquid called ground substance consisting of proteoglycans such as hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate ,[18] as well as non-collagenous proteins such as osteocalcin, osteopontin or bone sialoprotein . Collagen consists of strands of repeating units, which give bone tensile strength, and are arranged in an overlapping fashion that prevents shear stress. The function of ground substance is not fully known.[18] Two types of bone can be identified microscopically according to the arrangement of collagen: woven and lamellar. Woven bone, (also known as fibrous bone) which is characterized by a haphazard organization of collagen fibers and is mechanically weak[19] Lamellar bone, which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets ("lamellae") and is mechanically strong[19] Transmission electron micrograph of decalcified woven bone matrix displaying characteristic irregular orientation of collagen fibers. Woven bone is produced when osteoblasts produce osteoid rapidly, which occurs initially in all fetal bones, but is later replaced by more resilient lamellar bone. In adults woven bone is created after fractures or in Paget's disease. Woven bone is weaker, with a smaller number of randomly oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly; it is for this appearance of the fibrous matrix that the bone is termed woven. It is soon replaced by lamellar bone, which is highly organized in concentric sheets with a much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue. Lamellar bone, which makes its first appearance in humans in the fetus during the third trimester,[20] is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons). In cross-section, the fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like in plywood, assisting in the bone's ability to resist torsion forces. After a fracture, woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by lamellar bone during a process known as "bony substitution." Compared to woven bone, lamellar bone formation takes place more slowly. The orderly deposition of collagen fibers restricts the formation of osteoid to about 1 to 2 µm per day. Lamellar bone also requires a relatively flat surface to lay the collagen fibers in parallel or concentric layers.[citation needed] Deposition The extracellular matrix of bone is laid down by osteoblasts, which secrete both collagen and ground substance. These synthesise collagen within the cell, and then secrete collagen fibrils. The collagen fibres rapidly polymerise to form collagen strands. At this stage they are not yet mineralised, and are called "osteoid". Around the strands calcium and phosphate precipitate on the surface of these strands, within a days to weeks becoming crystals of hydroxyapatite.[18] In order to mineralise the bone, the osteoblasts secrete vesicles containing alkaline phosphatase. This cleaves the phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on. More particularly, bone mineral is formed from globular and plate structures.[21][22] Types Structure of a long bone One way to classify bones is by their shape or appearance. There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.[23] Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much longer than its width; and by an epiphysis, a rounded head at each end of the shaft. They are made up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the medullary cavity, and areas of spongy, cancellous bone at the ends of the bones.[24] Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are the eight carpal bones of the wrist, the seven articulating tarsal bones of the ankle and the sesamoid bone of the kneecap. Long bones such as the clavicle, that have a differently shaped shaft or ends are also called modified long bones. Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones. Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum.[25] Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform.[26] Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. Often this irregular shape is due to their many centers of ossification or because they contain bony sinuses. The bones of the spine, pelvis, and some bones of the skull are irregular bones. Examples include the ethmoid and sphenoid bones.[27] Terminology Main article: Anatomical terms of bone In the study of anatomy, anatomists use a number of anatomical terms to describe the appearance, shape and function of bones. Other anatomical terms are also used to describe the location of bones. Like other anatomical terms, many of these derive from Latin and Greek. Some anatomists still use Latin to refer to bones. The term "osseous", and the prefix "osteo-", referring to things related to bone, are still used commonly today. Some examples of terms used to describe bones include the term "foramen" to describe a hole through which something passes, and a "canal" or "meatus" to describe a tunnel-like structure. A protrusion from a bone can be called a number of terms, including a "condyle", "crest", "spine", "eminence", "tubercle" or "tuberosity", depending on the protrusion's shape and location. In general, long bones are said to have a "head", "neck", and "body". When two bones join together, they are said to "articulate". If the two bones have a fibrous connection and are relatively immobile, then the joint is called a "suture". Development Endochondral ossification Section through a juvenile knee joint (rat) showing the cartilagineous growth plates The formation of bone is called ossification. During the fetal stage of development this occurs by two processes: intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.[citation needed] Intramembranous ossification involves the formation of bone from connective tissue whereas endochondral ossification involves the formation of bone from cartilage. Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull but also the mandible, maxilla, and clavicles; the bone is formed from connective tissue such as mesenchyme tissue rather than from cartilage. The process includes: the development of the ossification center, calcification, trabeculae formation and the development of the periosteum.[citation needed] Endochondral ossification occurs in long bones and most other bones in the body; it involves the development of bone from cartilage. This process includes the development of a cartilage model, its growth and development, development of the primary and secondary ossification centers, and the formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plates.[citation needed] Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). At skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure).[citation needed] In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified. The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous.[28] The following steps are followed in the conversion of cartilage to bone: Zone of reserve cartilage. This region, farthest from the marrow cavity, consists of typical hyaline cartilage that as yet shows no sign of transforming into bone.[29] Zone of cell proliferation. A little closer to the marrow cavity, chondrocytes multiply and arrange themselves into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae.[29] Zone of cell hypertrophy. Next, the chondrocytes cease to divide and begin to hypertrophy (enlarge), much like they do in the primary ossification center of the fetus. The walls of the matrix between lacunae become very thin.[29] Zone of calcification. Minerals are deposited in the matrix between the columns of lacunae and calcify the cartilage. These are not the permanent mineral deposits of bone, but only a temporary support for the cartilage that would otherwise soon be weakened by the breakdown of the enlarged lacunae.[29] Zone of bone deposition. Within each column, the walls between the lacunae break down and the chondrocytes die. This converts each column into a longitudinal channel, which is immediately invaded by blood vessels and marrow from the marrow cavity. Osteoblasts line up along the walls of these channels and begin depositing concentric lamellae of matrix, while osteoclasts dissolve the temporarily calcified cartilage.[29] Function Functions of Bone Mechanical Protection Gives structure Facilitates movement Facilitates hearing Synthetic Contains bone marrow Metabolic Stores calcium Helps regulate the acid-base balance Bones have a variety of functions: Mechanical See also: Skeleton, Human skeleton, and List of bones of the human skeleton Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions. Together the bones in the body form the skeleton. They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints, which function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics). Bones protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the heart and lungs. Because of the way that bone is formed, bone has a high compressive strength of about 170 MPa (1800 kgf/cm²),[4] poor tensile strength of 104–121 MPa, and a very low shear stress strength (51.6 MPa).[30][31] This means that bone resists pushing(compressional) stress well, resist pulling(tensional) stress less well, but only poorly resists shear stress (such as due to torsional loads). While bone is essentially brittle, bone does have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly by collagen. The macroscopic yield strength of cancellous bone has been investigated using high resolution computer models.[32] Mechanically, bones also have a special role in hearing. The ossicles are three small bones in the middle ear which are involved in sound transduction. Synthetic The cancellous part of bones contain bone marrow. Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis.[33] Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells.[34] Progenitor cells such as the hematopoietic stem cell divide in a process called mitosis to produce precursor cells. These include precursors which eventually give rise to white blood cells, and erythroblasts which give rise to red blood cells.[35] Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called megakaryocytes.[36] This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow. After the cells are matured, they enter the circulation.[37] Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion granulocytes are produced in this way.[13] As well as creating cells, bone marrow is also one of the major sites where defective or aged red blood cells are destroyed.[13] Metabolic Mineral storage — bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus.[38][citation needed][39] °Determined by the species, age, and the type of bone, bone cells make up to 15 percent of the bone. Growth factor storage — mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others.[citation needed] Fat storage —marrow adipose tissue (MAT) acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids.[40] Acid-base balance — bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts.[citation needed] Detoxification — bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion.[citation needed] Endocrine organ — bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing fibroblast growth factor – 23 (FGF-23), which acts on kidneys to reduce phosphate reabsorption. Bone cells also release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.[41] Calcium balance—The process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations.[citation needed] Remodeling Main article: Bone remodeling Bone is constantly being created and replaced in a process known as remodeling. This ongoing turnover of bone is a process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape. This is accomplished through osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Cells are stimulated by a variety of signals, and together referred to as a remodeling unit. Approximately 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodelled each year.[42] The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair microdamaged bones from everyday stress, and to shape the skeleton during growth.[citation needed] Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff's law). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress.[43] The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical enzymes that either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed, or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signalling to control the activity of each other.[citation needed] For example, the rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland, and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation.[44] Osteoblasts can also be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of osteoid and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to break down osseous tissue.[citation needed] Increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex hormones (estrogens and androgens). These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin.[44] Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorbtion of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion of macrophage colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin.[citation needed] Bone volume Bone volume is determined by the rates of bone formation and bone resorption. Recent research has suggested that certain growth factors may work to locally alter bone formation by increasing osteoblast activity. Numerous bone-derived growth factors have been isolated and classified via bone cultures. These factors include insulin-like growth factors I and II, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins.[45] Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in the bone matrix. The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix could cause the proliferation of osteoblast precursors. Essentially, bone growth factors may act as potential determinants of local bone formation.[45] Research has suggested that cancellous bone volume in postemenopausal osteoporosis may be determined by the relationship between the total bone forming surface and the percent of surface resorption.[46] Clinical significance See also: Bone disease A number of diseases can affect bone, including arthritis, fractures, infections, osteoporosis and tumours. Conditions relating to bone can be managed by a variety of doctors, including rheumatologists for joints, and orthopedic surgeons, who may conduct surgery to fix broken bones. Other doctors, such as rehabilitation specialists may be involved in recovery, radiologists in interpreting the findings on imaging, and pathologists in investigating the cause of the disease, and family doctors may play a role in preventing complications of bone disease such as osteoporosis. When a doctor sees a patient, a history and exam will be taken. Bones are then often imaged, called radiography. This might include ultrasound X-ray, CT scan, MRI scan and other imaging such as a Bone scan, which may be used to investigate cancer.[47] Other tests such as a blood test for autoimmune markers may be taken, or a synovial fluid aspirate may be taken.[47] Fractures Radiography used to identify possible bone fractures after a knee injury. Main article: Bone fracture In normal bone, fractures occur when there is significant force applied, or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as Paget's disease) or is the site of the growth of cancer.[48] Common fractures include wrist fractures and hip fractures, associated with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones. Not all fractures are painful.[48] When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndromes or fat embolism. Compound fractures involve the bone's penetration through the skin. Some complex fractures can be treated by the use of bone grafting procedures that replace missing bone portions. Fractures and their underlying causes can be investigated by X-rays, CT scans and MRIs.[48] Fractures are described by their location and shape, and several classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture. A common long bone fracture in children is a Salter–Harris fracture.[49] When fractures are managed, pain relief is often given, and the fractured area is often immobilised. This is to promote bone healing. In addition, surgical measures such as internal fixation may be used. Because of the immobilisation, people with fractures are often advised to undergo rehabilitation.[48] Tumors Main article: Bone tumour There are several types of tumour that can affect bone; examples of benign bone tumours include osteoma, osteoid osteoma, osteochondroma, osteoblastoma, enchondroma, giant cell tumor of bone, and aneurysmal bone cyst.[50] Cancer Main article: Bone metastases Cancer can arise in bone tissue, and bones are also a common site for other cancers to spread (metastasise) to.[51] Cancers that arise in bone are called "primary" cancers, although such cancers are rare.[51] Metastases within bone are "secondary" cancers, with the most common being breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, and kidney cancer.[51] Secondary cancers that affect bone can either destroy bone (called a "lytic" cancer) or create bone (a "sclerotic" cancer). Cancers of the bone marrow inside the bone can also affect bone tissue, examples including leukemia and multiple myeloma. Bone may also be affected by cancers in other parts of the body. Cancers in other parts of the body may release parathyroid hormone or parathyroid hormone-related peptide. This increases bone reabsorption, and can lead to bone fractures. Bone tissue that is destroyed or altered as a result of cancers is distorted, weakened, and more prone to fracture. This may lead to compression of the spinal cord, destruction of the marrow resulting in bruising, bleeding and immunosuppression, and is one cause of bone pain. If the cancer is metastatic, then there might be other symptoms depending on the site of the original cancer. Some bone cancers can also be felt. Cancers of the bone are managed according to their type, their stage, prognosis, and what symptoms they cause. Many primary cancers of bone are treated with radiotherapy. Cancers of bone marrow may be treated with chemotherapy, and other forms of targeted therapy such as immunotherapy may be used.[52] Palliative care, which focuses on maximising a person's quality of life, may play a role in management, particularly if the likelihood of survival within five years is poor. Painful conditions Osteomyelitis is inflammation of the bone or bone marrow due to bacterial infection. Osteogenesis imperfecta Osteochondritis dissecans Arthritis Ankylosing spondylitis Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by an excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis damages bones and joints and is painful. Osteoporosis Main article: Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures.[53] Osteoporosis is defined in women by the World Health Organization as a bone mineral density of 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average. This density is measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a fragility fracture.[54] Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids.[53] Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs.[53] For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and are at risk of fracture.[53] Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium and trace mineral supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and hormone replacement therapy.[55] Osteopathy Main article: Osteopathy Osteopathic medicine is a school of medical thought originally developed based on the idea of the link between the musculoskeletal system and overall health, but now very similar to mainstream medicine. As of 2012, over 77,000 physicians in the United States are trained in Osteopathic medicine colleges.[56] Osteology Human femurs and humerus from Roman period, with evidence of healed fractures The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology. It is frequently used in anthropology, archeology and forensic science for a variety of tasks. This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken from. Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve the process of maceration. Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made by Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can also be made from external bones such as antlers. Other animals Main articles: Bird anatomy and Exoskeleton knobby hoofed leg Skeletal fluorosis in a cow's leg, due to industrial contamination Leg and pelvic girdle bones of bird Bird skeletons are very lightweight. Their bones are smaller and thinner, to aid flight. Among mammals, bats come closest to birds in terms of bone density, suggesting that small dense bones are a flight adaptation. Many bird bones have little marrow due to their being hollow.[57] A bird's beak is primarily made of bone as projections of the mandibles which are covered in keratin. A deer's antlers are composed of bone which is an unusual example of bone being outside the skin of the animal once the velvet is shed.[58] The extinct predatory fish Dunkleosteus had sharp edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws.[59][60] Many animals possess an exoskeleton that is not made of bone. These include insects and crustaceans. The proportion of cortical bone that is 80% in the human skeleton may be much lower in other animals, especially in marine mammals and marine turtles, or in various Mesozoic marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs,[61] among others.[62] Many animals particularly herbivores practice osteophagy – the eating of bones. This is presumably carried out in order to replenish lacking phosphate. Many bone diseases that affect humans also affect other vertebrates – an example of one disorder is skeletal flurosis. Society and culture Bones from slaughtered animals have a number of uses. In prehistoric times, they have been used for making bone tools.[citation needed] They have further been used in bone carving, already important in prehistoric art, and also in modern time as crafting materials for buttons, beads, handles, bobbins, calculation aids, head nuts, dice, poker chips, pick-up sticks, ornaments, etc. A special genre is scrimshaw.[citation needed] Bone glue can be made by prolonged boiling of ground or cracked bones, followed by filtering and evaporation to thicken the resulting fluid. Historically once important, bone glue and other animal glues today have only a few specialized uses, such as in antiques restoration. Essentially the same process, with further refinement, thickening and drying, is used to make gelatin. Broth is made by simmering several ingredients for a long time, traditionally including bones. Ground bones are used as an organic phosphorus-nitrogen fertilizer and as additive in animal feed. Bones, in particular after calcination to bone ash, are used as source of calcium phosphate for the production of bone china and previously also phosphorus chemicals.[citation needed] Bone char, a porous, black, granular material primarily used for filtration and also as a black pigment, is produced by charring mammal bones. Oracle bone script was a writing system used in Ancient china based on inscriptions in bones. To point the bone at someone is considered bad luck in some cultures, such as Australian aborigines, such as by the Kurdaitcha. The wishbones of fowl have been used for divination, and are still customarily used in a tradition to determine which one of two people pulling on either prong of the bone may make a wish. Various cultures throughout history have adopted the custom of shaping an infant's head by the practice of artificial cranial deformation. A widely practised custom in China was that of foot binding to limit the normal growth of the foot. Additional images Cells in bone marrow Scanning electron microscope of bone at 100x magnification See also Artificial bone Bone health Distraction osteogenesis National Bone Health Campaign Skeletal system References Steele, D. Gentry; Claud A. Bramblett (1988). The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-89096-300-2. Mammal anatomy : an illustrated guide. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 129. ISBN 9780761478829. Hall, John (2011). Textbook of Medical Physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. 957–960. ISBN 978-08089-2400-5. Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (1984). "Scaling: Why Is Animal Size So Important?". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 6. ISBN 0-521-31987-0. "ossein". The Free Dictionary. Deakin 2006, p. 192. Gdyczynski, C.M.; Manbachi, A.; et al. (2014). "On estimating the directionality distribution in pedicle trabecular bone from micro-CT images". Journal of Physiological Measurements. 35 (12): 2415–2428. doi:10.1088/0967-3334/35/12/2415. Deakin 2006, p. 195. Hall, Susan J. (2007). Basic Biomechanics with OLC (5th ed., Revised. ed.). Burr Ridge: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 88. ISBN 0-07-126041-2. Gomez, Santiago (February 2002). "Crisóstomo Martinez, 1638-1694: the discoverer of trabecular bone". Endocrine. 17 (1): 3–4. doi:10.1385/ENDO:17:1:03. ISSN 1355-008X. PMID 12014701. Barnes-Svarney, Patricia L.; Svarney, Thomas E. (2016). The Handy Anatomy Answer Book : Includes Physiology. Detroit: Visible Ink Press. pp. 90–91. ISBN 9781578595426. Deakin 2006, p. 189. Deakin 2006, p. 58. Deakin 2006, pp. 189–190. Washington. "The O' Cells." Bone Cells. University of Washington, n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2013. Davis, Michael. "DrTummy.com | DrTummy.com." DrTummy.com | DrTummy.com. Dr. Tummy, n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2013. Deakin 2006, p. 190. Hall 2005, p. 981. Currey, John D. (2002). "The Structure of Bone Tissue", pp. 12–14 in Bones: Structure and Mechanics. Princeton University Press. Princeton, NJ. ISBN 9781400849505 Salentijn, L. Biology of Mineralized Tissues: Cartilage and Bone, Columbia University College of Dental Medicine post-graduate dental lecture series, 2007 Bertazzo, S.; Bertran, C. A. (2006). "Morphological and dimensional characteristics of bone mineral crystals". Bioceramics. 309–311 (Pt. 1, 2): 3–10. doi:10.4028/scientific.net/KEM.309-311.3. Bertazzo, S.; Bertran, C.A.; Camilli, J.A. (2006). "Morphological Characterization of Femur and Parietal Bone Mineral of Rats at Different Ages". Key Engineering Materials. 309–311: 11–14. doi:10.4028/scientific.net/KEM.309-311.11. "Types of bone". mananatomy.com. Retrieved 6 February 2016. "DoITPoMS - TLP Library Structure of bone and implant materials - Structure and composition of bone". www.doitpoms.ac.uk. Bart Clarke (2008), "Normal Bone Anatomy and Physiology", Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 3, doi:10.2215/CJN.04151206, PMC 3152283 Freely accessible Adriana Jerez, Susana Mangione, and Virginia Abdala (2010), "Occurrence and distribution of sesamoid bones in squamates: a comparative approach", Acta Zoologica, 91 (3): 295–305, doi:10.1111/j.1463-6395.2009.00408.x Pratt, Rebecca. "Bone as an Organ". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc. Retrieved 2012-09-28. Agur, Anne (2009). Grant's Atlas of Anatomy. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins. p. 598. ISBN 978-0-7817-7055-2. Saladin, Kenneth (2012). Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-07-337825-1. Vincent, Kevin. "Topic 3: Structure and Mechanical Properties of Bone". BENG 112A Biomechanics, Winter Quarter, 2013. Department of Bioengineering, University of California. Turner, C.H.; Wang, T.; Burr, D.B. (2001). "Shear Strength and Fatigue Properties of Human Cortical Bone Determined from Pure Shear Tests". Calcified Tissue International. 69 (6): 373–378. doi:10.1007/s00223-001-1006-1. PMID 11800235. Levrero, F.; Margetts, L.; et al. (2016). "Evaluating the macroscopic yield behaviour of trabecular bone using a nonlinear homogenisation approach". Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials. 61: 384–396. doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2016.04.008. Fernández, KS; de Alarcón, PA (December 2013). "Development of the hematopoietic system and disorders of hematopoiesis that present during infancy and early childhood". Pediatric clinics of North America. 60 (6): 1273–89. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2013.08.002. PMID 24237971. Deakin 2006, p. 60-61. Deakin 2006, p. 60. Deakin 2006, p. 57. Deakin 2006, p. 46. Doyle, Máire E.; Jan de Beur, Suzanne M. (2008). "The Skeleton: Endocrine Regulator of Phosphate Homeostasis". Current Osteoporosis Reports. 6: 134–141. doi:10.1007/s11914-008-0024-6 – via Google Scholar. Walker, Kristin. "Bone". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 October 2017. Styner, Maya; Pagnotti, Gabriel M; McGrath, Cody; Wu, Xin; Sen, Buer; Uzer, Gunes; Xie, Zhihui; Zong, Xiaopeng; Styner, Martin A (2017-05-01). "Exercise Decreases Marrow Adipose Tissue Through ß-Oxidation in Obese Running Mice". Journal of Bone and Mineral Research: n/a–n/a. doi:10.1002/jbmr.3159. ISSN 1523-4681. Lee, Na Kyung; et al. (10 August 2007). "Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism by the Skeleton" (PDF). Cell. 130 (3): 456–469. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.047. PMC 2013746 Freely accessible. PMID 17693256. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 15 March 2008. Manolagas, SC (April 2000). "Birth and death of bone cells: basic regulatory mechanisms and implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis". Endocrine Reviews. 21 (2): 115–37. doi:10.1210/edrv.21.2.0395. PMID 10782361. ed, Russell T. Woodburne ..., consulting (1999). Anatomy, physiology, and metabolic disorders (5. print. ed.). Summit, N.J.: Novartis Pharmaceutical Corp. pp. 187–189. ISBN 0-914168-88-6. Boulpaep, Emile L.; Boron, Walter F. (2005). Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular approach. Philadelphia: Saunders. pp. 1089–1091. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. Mohan, S.; Baylink, D. J. (1991). "Bone growth factors". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (263): 30–48. doi:10.1097/00003086-199102000-00004. PMID 1993386. Nordin, BE; Aaron, J; Speed, R; Crilly, RG (8 August 1981). "Bone formation and resorption as the determinants of trabecular bone volume in postmenopausal osteoporosis". Lancet. 2 (8241): 277–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(81)90526-2. PMID 6114324. Britton 2010, pp. 1059–1062. Britton 2010, pp. 1068. Salter RB, Harris WR (1963). "Injuries Involving the Epiphyseal Plate". J Bone Joint Surg Am. 45 (3): 587–622. doi:10.2106/00004623-196345030-00019. "Benign Bone Tumors". Cleveland Clinic. 2017. Retrieved March 29, 2017. Britton 2010, pp. 1125. Page semi-protected Mineral From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). Crystals of serandite, natrolite, analcime, and aegirine: Mont Saint-Hilaire, La Vallée-du-Richelieu RCM, Montérégie, Québec, Canada A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound,[1] usually of crystalline form and not produced by life processes. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids. The study of minerals is called mineralogy. As of March 2018, there are more than 5,500 known mineral species;[2] 5,312 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).[3] Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, which were determined by the mineral's geological environment when formed. Changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety,[4] for example amethyst, a purple variety of the mineral species quartz. Minerals can be described by their various physical properties, which are related to their chemical structure and composition. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, specific gravity, magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity, and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earth's crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals. The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.[5] The silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a base unit of a [SiO4]4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions, which gives the shape of a tetrahedron. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses: orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra), disilicates (two tetrahedra bonded together), cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra), inosilicates (chains of tetrahedra), phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra), and tectosilicates (three-dimensional network of tetrahedra). Other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates. Contents 1 Definition 1.1 Basic definition 1.2 Recent advances 1.3 Rocks, ores, and gems 1.4 Nomenclature and classification 2 Chemistry 3 Physical properties 3.1 Crystal structure and habit 3.2 Hardness 3.3 Lustre and diaphaneity 3.4 Colour and streak 3.5 Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity 3.6 Specific gravity 3.7 Other properties 4 Classification 4.1 Silicates 4.2 Non-silicates 5 Astrobiology 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 General references 10 Further reading 11 External links Definition Basic definition One definition of a mineral encompasses the following criteria:[6] Formed by a natural process (anthropogenic compounds are excluded). Stable or metastable at room temperature (25 °C). In the simplest sense, this means the mineral must be solid. Classical examples of exceptions to this rule include native mercury, which crystallizes at −39 °C, and water ice, which is solid only below 0 °C; because these two minerals were described before 1959, they were grandfathered by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).[7][8] Modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Represented by a chemical formula. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula. Many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution; pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. For example, the olivine group is described by the variable formula (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, which is a solid solution of two end-member species, magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, which are described by a fixed chemical formula. Mineral species themselves could have a variable composition, such as the sulfide mackinawite, (Fe, Ni)9S8, which is mostly a ferrous sulfide, but has a very significant nickel impurity that is reflected in its formula.[6][9] Ordered atomic arrangement. This generally means crystalline; however, crystals are also periodic, so the broader criterion is used instead.[6] An ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage.[10] There have been several recent proposals to classify biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of a mineral approved by the IMA in 1995: "A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes."[11] Usually abiogenic (not resulting from the activity of living organisms). Biogenic substances are explicitly excluded by the IMA: "Biogenic substances are chemical compounds produced entirely by biological processes without a geological component (e.g., urinary calculi, oxalate crystals in plant tissues, shells of marine molluscs, etc.) and are not regarded as minerals. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, then the product can be accepted as a mineral."[11] The first three general characteristics are less debated than the last two.[6] Recent advances Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science. Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes.[12][13] The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with hydrocarbons. The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names adopted in 2009 a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names.[14][15] According to these new rules, "mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification."[14] The Nickel (1995)[clarification needed] exclusion of biogenic substances was not universally adhered to. For example, Lowenstam (1981) stated that "organisms are capable of forming a diverse array of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere."[16] The distinction is a matter of classification and less to do with the constituents of the minerals themselves. Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes biominerals in the mineral kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms. Skinner expanded the previous definition of a mineral to classify "element or compound, amorphous or crystalline, formed through biogeochemical processes," as a mineral.[17] Recent advances in high-resolution genetics and X-ray absorption spectroscopy are providing revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microorganisms and minerals that may make Nickel's (1995) biogenic mineral exclusion obsolete and Skinner's (2005) biogenic mineral inclusion a necessity.[11][17] For example, the IMA-commissioned "Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry " deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.[18] The group's scope includes mineral-forming microorganisms, which exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe to depths of at least 1600 metres below the sea floor and 70 kilometres into the stratosphere (possibly entering the mesosphere).[19][20][21] Biogeochemical cycles have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years. Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution, contributing to the formation of ore deposits. They can also catalyze the dissolution of minerals.[22][23][24] Prior to the International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been discovered, named, and published.[25] These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam (1981)[16]) are considered minerals proper according to the Skinner (2005) definition.[17] These biominerals are not listed in the International Mineral Association official list of mineral names,[26] however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78 mineral classes listed in the Dana classification scheme.[17] Another rare class of minerals (primarily biological in origin) include the mineral liquid crystals that have properties of both liquids and crystals. To date, over 80,000 liquid crystalline compounds have been identified.[27][28] The Skinner (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous, the latter group including liquid crystals.[17] Although biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, are not the most common form of minerals,[29] they help to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral proper. The formal Nickel (1995) definition explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article defined icosahedrite, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique natural icosahedral symmetry, it is a quasicrystal. Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic.[30][31] Rocks, ores, and gems Schist is a metamorphic rock characterized by an abundance of platy minerals. In this example, the rock has prominent sillimanite porphyroblasts as large as 3 cm (1.2 in). Minerals are not equivalent to rocks. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals[32] or mineraloids. Some rocks, such as limestone or quartzite, are composed primarily of one mineral—calcite or aragonite in the case of limestone, and quartz in the latter case.[33][34] Other rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a granite is defined by proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar.[35] The other minerals in the rock are termed accessory, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock. Rocks can also be composed entirely of non-mineral material; coal is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of organically derived carbon.[32][36] In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed the rock-forming minerals. The major examples of these are quartz, the feldspars, the micas, the amphiboles, the pyroxenes, the olivines, and calcite; except for the last one, all of these minerals are silicates.[37] Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting.[38] Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. For example, muscovite, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator.[39] Ores are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal. Examples are cinnabar (HgS), an ore of mercury, sphalerite (ZnS), an ore of zinc, or cassiterite (SnO2), an ore of tin. Gems are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones. Gem minerals are often present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones; for example, ruby and sapphire are both corundum, Al2O3.[40] Nomenclature and classification Minerals are classified by variety, species, series and group, in order of increasing generality. The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, each of which is distinguished from the others by unique chemical and physical properties. For example, quartz is defined by its formula, SiO2, and a specific crystalline structure that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same chemical formula (termed polymorphs). When there exists a range of composition between two minerals species, a mineral series is defined. For example, the biotite series is represented by variable amounts of the endmembers phlogopite, siderophyllite, annite, and eastonite. In contrast, a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that share a crystal structure. The pyroxene group has a common formula of XY(Si,Al)2O6, where X and Y are both cations, with X typically bigger than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates that crystallize in either the orthorhombic or monoclinic crystal systems. Finally, a mineral variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some physical characteristic, such as colour or crystal habit. An example is amethyst, which is a purple variety of quartz.[41] Two common classifications, Dana and Strunz, are used for minerals; both rely on composition, specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and structure. James Dwight Dana, a leading geologist of his time, first published his System of Mineralogy in 1837; as of 1997, it is in its eighth edition. The Dana classification assigns a four-part number to a mineral species. Its class number is based on important compositional groups; the type gives the ratio of cations to anions in the mineral, and the last two numbers group minerals by structural similarity within a given type or class. The less commonly used Strunz classification, named for German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.[42] As of September 2017, 5,291 mineral species are approved by the IMA.[3] They are most commonly named after a person (45%), followed by discovery location (23%); names based on chemical composition (14%) and physical properties (8%) are the two other major groups of mineral name etymologies.[41][43] The word "species" (from the Latin species, "a particular sort, kind, or type with distinct look, or appearance")[44] comes from the classification scheme in Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus. Linneaeus divided the natural world into three kingdoms – plants, animals, and minerals – and classified each with the same hierarchy. In descending order, these were Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Tribe, Genus, and Species.[45] Chemistry Hübnerite, the manganese-rich end-member of the wolframite series, with minor quartz in the background The abundance and diversity of minerals is controlled directly by their chemistry, in turn dependent on elemental abundances in the Earth. The majority of minerals observed are derived from the Earth's crust. Eight elements account for most of the key components of minerals, due to their abundance in the crust. These eight elements, summing to over 98% of the crust by weight, are, in order of decreasing abundance: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. Oxygen and silicon are by far the two most important – oxygen composes 47% of the crust by weight, and silicon accounts for 28%.[46] The minerals that form are directly controlled by the bulk chemistry of the parent body. For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form mafic minerals, such as olivine and the pyroxenes; in contrast, a more silica-rich magma will crystallize to form minerals that incorporate more SiO2, such as the feldspars and quartz. In a limestone, calcite or aragonite (both CaCO3) form because the rock is rich in calcium and carbonate. A corollary is that a mineral will not be found in a rock whose bulk chemistry does not resemble the bulk chemistry of a given mineral with the exception of trace minerals. For example, kyanite, Al2SiO5 forms from the metamorphism of aluminium-rich shales; it would not likely occur in aluminium-poor rock, such as quartzite. The chemical composition may vary between end member species of a solid solution series. For example, the plagioclase feldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium-rich end member albite (NaAlSi3O8) to calcium-rich anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) with four recognized intermediate varieties between them (given in order from sodium- to calcium-rich): oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, and bytownite.[47] Other examples of series include the olivine series of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, and the wolframite series of manganese-rich hübnerite and iron-rich ferberite. Chemical substitution and coordination polyhedra explain this common feature of minerals. In nature, minerals are not pure substances, and are contaminated by whatever other elements are present in the given chemical system. As a result, it is possible for one element to be substituted for another.[48] Chemical substitution will occur between ions of a similar size and charge; for example, K+ will not substitute for Si4+ because of chemical and structural incompatibilities caused by a big difference in size and charge. A common example of chemical substitution is that of Si4+ by Al3+, which are close in charge, size, and abundance in the crust. In the example of plagioclase, there are three cases of substitution. Feldspars are all framework silicates, which have a silicon-oxygen ratio of 2:1, and the space for other elements is given by the substitution of Si4+ by Al3+ to give a base unit of [AlSi3O8]−; without the substitution, the formula would be charge-balanced as SiO2, giving quartz.[49] The significance of this structural property will be explained further by coordination polyhedra. The second substitution occurs between Na+ and Ca2+; however, the difference in charge has to accounted for by making a second substitution of Si4+ by Al3+.[50] Coordination polyhedra are geometric representations of how a cation is surrounded by an anion. In mineralogy, coordination polyhedra are usually considered in terms of oxygen, due its abundance in the crust. The base unit of silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron – one Si4+ surrounded by four O2−. An alternate way of describing the coordination of the silicate is by a number: in the case of the silica tetrahedron, the silicon is said to have a coordination number of 4. Various cations have a specific range of possible coordination numbers; for silicon, it is almost always 4, except for very high-pressure minerals where the compound is compressed such that silicon is in six-fold (octahedral) coordination with oxygen. Bigger cations have a bigger coordination numbers because of the increase in relative size as compared to oxygen (the last orbital subshell of heavier atoms is different too). Changes in coordination numbers leads to physical and mineralogical differences; for example, at high pressure, such as in the mantle, many minerals, especially silicates such as olivine and garnet, will change to a perovskite structure, where silicon is in octahedral coordination. Other examples are the aluminosilicates kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite (polymorphs, since they share the formula Al2SiO5), which differ by the coordination number of the Al3+; these minerals transition from one another as a response to changes in pressure and temperature.[46] In the case of silicate materials, the substitution of Si4+ by Al3+ allows for a variety of minerals because of the need to balance charges.[51] When minerals react, the products will sometimes assume the shape of the reagent; the product mineral is termed a pseudomorph of (or after) the reagent. Illustrated here is a pseudomorph of kaolinite after orthoclase. Here, the pseudomorph preserved the Carlsbad twinning common in orthoclase. Changes in temperature and pressure and composition alter the mineralogy of a rock sample. Changes in composition can be caused by processes such as weathering or metasomatism (hydrothermal alteration). Changes in temperature and pressure occur when the host rock undergoes tectonic or magmatic movement into differing physical regimes. Changes in thermodynamic conditions make it favourable for mineral assemblages to react with each other to produce new minerals; as such, it is possible for two rocks to have an identical or a very similar bulk rock chemistry without having a similar mineralogy. This process of mineralogical alteration is related to the rock cycle. An example of a series of mineral reactions is illustrated as follows.[52] Orthoclase feldspar (KAlSi3O8) is a mineral commonly found in granite, a plutonic igneous rock. When exposed to weathering, it reacts to form kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4, a sedimentary mineral, and silicic acid): 2 KAlSi3O8 + 5 H2O + 2 H+ → Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4 H2SiO3 + 2 K+ Under low-grade metamorphic conditions, kaolinite reacts with quartz to form pyrophyllite (Al2Si4O10(OH)2): Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + SiO2 → Al2Si4O10(OH)2 + H2O As metamorphic grade increases, the pyrophyllite reacts to form kyanite and quartz: Al2Si4O10(OH)2 → Al2SiO5 + 3 SiO2 + H2O Alternatively, a mineral may change its crystal structure as a consequence of changes in temperature and pressure without reacting. For example, quartz will change into a variety of its SiO2 polymorphs, such as tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, and coesite at high pressures.[53] Physical properties Classifying minerals ranges from simple to difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex optical, chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming. Physical properties applied for classification include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, cleavage and fracture, and specific gravity. Other less general tests include fluorescence, phosphorescence, magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids.[54] Crystal structure and habit Main articles: Crystal system and Crystal habit See also: Crystal twinning Topaz has a characteristic orthorhombic elongated crystal shape. Crystal structure results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction.[6] Minerals are typically described by their symmetry content. Crystals are restricted to 32 point groups, which differ by their symmetry. These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most encompassing of these being the six crystal families.[55] These families can be described by the relative lengths of the three crystallographic axes, and the angles between them; these relationships correspond to the symmetry operations that define the narrower point groups. They are summarized below; a, b, and c represent the axes, and α, β, γ represent the angle opposite the respective crystallographic axis (e.g. α is the angle opposite the a-axis, viz. the angle between the b and c axes):[55] Crystal family Lengths Angles Common examples Isometric a=b=c α=β=γ=90° Garnet, halite, pyrite Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90° Rutile, zircon, andalusite Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90° Olivine, aragonite, orthopyroxenes Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°, γ=120° Quartz, calcite, tourmaline Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=γ=90°, β≠90° Clinopyroxenes, orthoclase, gypsum Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90° Anorthite, albite, kyanite The hexagonal crystal family is also split into two crystal systems – the trigonal, which has a three-fold axis of symmetry, and the hexagonal, which has a six-fold axis of symmetry. Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. With a restriction to 32 point groups, minerals of different chemistry may have identical crystal structure. For example, halite (NaCl), galena (PbS), and periclase (MgO) all belong to the hexaoctahedral point group (isometric family), as they have a similar stoichiometry between their different constituent elements. In contrast, polymorphs are groupings of minerals that share a chemical formula but have a different structure. For example, pyrite and marcasite, both iron sulfides, have the formula FeS2; however, the former is isometric while the latter is orthorhombic. This polymorphism extends to other sulfides with the generic AX2 formula; these two groups are collectively known as the pyrite and marcasite groups.[56] Polymorphism can extend beyond pure symmetry content. The aluminosilicates are a group of three minerals – kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite – which share the chemical formula Al2SiO5. Kyanite is triclinic, while andalusite and sillimanite are both orthorhombic and belong to the dipyramidal point group. These differences arise corresponding to how aluminium is coordinated within the crystal structure. In all minerals, one aluminium ion is always in six-fold coordination with oxygen. Silicon, as a general rule, is in four-fold coordination in all minerals; an exception is a case like stishovite (SiO2, an ultra-high pressure quartz polymorph with rutile structure).[57] In kyanite, the second aluminium is in six-fold coordination; its chemical formula can be expressed as Al[6]Al[6]SiO5, to reflect its crystal structure. Andalusite has the second aluminium in five-fold coordination (Al[6]Al[5]SiO5) and sillimanite has it in four-fold coordination (Al[6]Al[4]SiO5).[58] Differences in crystal structure and chemistry greatly influence other physical properties of the mineral. The carbon allotropes diamond and graphite have vastly different properties; diamond is the hardest natural substance, has an adamantine lustre, and belongs to the isometric crystal family, whereas graphite is very soft, has a greasy lustre, and crystallises in the hexagonal family. This difference is accounted for by differences in bonding. In diamond, the carbons are in sp3 hybrid orbitals, which means they form a framework where each carbon is covalently bonded to four neighbours in a tetrahedral fashion; on the other hand, graphite is composed of sheets of carbons in sp2 hybrid orbitals, where each carbon is bonded covalently to only three others. These sheets are held together by much weaker van der Waals forces, and this discrepancy translates to large macroscopic differences.[59] Contact twins, as seen in spinel Twinning is the intergrowth of two or more crystals of a single mineral species. The geometry of the twinning is controlled by the mineral's symmetry. As a result, there are several types of twins, including contact twins, reticulated twins, geniculated twins, penetration twins, cyclic twins, and polysynthetic twins. Contact, or simple twins, consist of two crystals joined at a plane; this type of twinning is common in spinel. Reticulated twins, common in rutile, are interlocking crystals resembling netting. Geniculated twins have a bend in the middle that is caused by start of the twin. Penetration twins consist of two single crystals that have grown into each other; examples of this twinning include cross-shaped staurolite twins and Carlsbad twinning in orthoclase. Cyclic twins are caused by repeated twinning around a rotation axis. This type of twinning occurs around three, four, five, six, or eight-fold axes, and the corresponding patterns are called threelings, fourlings, fivelings, sixlings, and eightlings. Sixlings are common in aragonite. Polysynthetic twins are similar to cyclic twins through the presence of repetitive twinning; however, instead of occurring around a rotational axis, polysynthetic twinning occurs along parallel planes, usually on a microscopic scale.[60][61] Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of crystal. Several terms are used to describe this property. Common habits include acicular, which describes needlelike crystals as in natrolite, bladed, dendritic (tree-pattern, common in native copper), equant, which is typical of garnet, prismatic (elongated in one direction), and tabular, which differs from bladed habit in that the former is platy whereas the latter has a defined elongation. Related to crystal form, the quality of crystal faces is diagnostic of some minerals, especially with a petrographic microscope. Euhedral crystals have a defined external shape, while anhedral crystals do not; those intermediate forms are termed subhedral.[62][63] Hardness Main article: Mohs scale of mineral hardness Diamond is the hardest natural material, and has a Mohs hardness of 10. The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching. This physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline structure of a mineral. A mineral's hardness is not necessarily constant for all sides, which is a function of its structure; crystallographic weakness renders some directions softer than others.[64] An example of this property exists in kyanite, which has a Mohs hardness of 5½ parallel to [001] but 7 parallel to [100].[65] The most common scale of measurement is the ordinal Mohs hardness scale. Defined by ten indicators, a mineral with a higher index scratches those below it. The scale ranges from talc, a phyllosilicate, to diamond, a carbon polymorph that is the hardest natural material. The scale is provided below:[64] Mohs hardness Mineral Chemical formula 1 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 2 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O 3 Calcite CaCO3 4 Fluorite CaF2 5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F) 6 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 7 Quartz SiO2 8 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH,F)2 9 Corundum Al2O3 10 Diamond C Lustre and diaphaneity Main article: Lustre (mineralogy) Pyrite has a metallic lustre. Lustre indicates how light reflects from the mineral's surface, with regards to its quality and intensity. There are numerous qualitative terms used to describe this property, which are split into metallic and non-metallic categories. Metallic and sub-metallic minerals have high reflectivity like metal; examples of minerals with this lustre are galena and pyrite. Non-metallic lustres include: adamantine, such as in diamond; vitreous, which is a glassy lustre very common in silicate minerals; pearly, such as in talc and apophyllite; resinous, such as members of the garnet group; silky which is common in fibrous minerals such as asbestiform chrysotile.[66] The diaphaneity of a mineral describes the ability of light to pass through it. Transparent minerals do not diminish the intensity of light passing through them. An example of a transparent mineral is muscovite (potassium mica); some varieties are sufficiently clear to have been used for windows. Translucent minerals allow some light to pass, but less than those that are transparent. Jadeite and nephrite (mineral forms of jade are examples of minerals with this property). Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque.[67][68] The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on the thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently thin (e.g., in a thin section for petrography), it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in a hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite, are opaque even in thin-section.[68] Colour and streak Main article: Streak (mineralogy) Colour is typically not a diagnostic property of minerals. Shown are green uvarovite (left) and red-pink grossular (right), both garnets. The diagnostic features would include dodecahedral crystals, resinous lustre, and hardness around 7. Colour is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic.[69] It is caused by electromagnetic radiation interacting with electrons (except in the case of incandescence, which does not apply to minerals).[70] Two broad classes of elements (idiochromatic and allochromatic) are defined with regards to their contribution to a mineral's colour: Idiochromatic elements are essential to a mineral's composition; their contribution to a mineral's colour is diagnostic.[67][71] Examples of such minerals are malachite (green) and azurite (blue). In contrast, allochromatic elements in minerals are present in trace amounts as impurities. An example of such a mineral would be the ruby and sapphire varieties of the mineral corundum.[71] The colours of pseudochromatic minerals are the result of interference of light waves. Examples include labradorite and bornite. In addition to simple body colour, minerals can have various other distinctive optical properties, such as play of colours, asterism, chatoyancy, iridescence, tarnish, and pleochroism. Several of these properties involve variability in colour. Play of colour, such as in opal, results in the sample reflecting different colours as it is turned, while pleochroism describes the change in colour as light passes through a mineral in a different orientation. Iridescence is a variety of the play of colours where light scatters off a coating on the surface of crystal, cleavage planes, or off layers having minor gradations in chemistry.[72] In contrast, the play of colours in opal is caused by light refracting from ordered microscopic silica spheres within its physical structure.[73] Chatoyancy ("cat's eye") is the wavy banding of colour that is observed as the sample is rotated; asterism, a variety of chatoyancy, gives the appearance of a star on the mineral grain. The latter property is particularly common in gem-quality corundum.[72][73] The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may not be identical to its body colour.[71] The most common way of testing this property is done with a streak plate, which is made out of porcelain and coloured either white or black. The streak of a mineral is independent of trace elements[67] or any weathering surface.[71] A common example of this property is illustrated with hematite, which is coloured black, silver, or red in hand sample, but has a cherry-red[67] to reddish-brown streak.[71] Streak is more often distinctive for metallic minerals, in contrast to non-metallic minerals whose body colour is created by allochromatic elements.[67] Streak testing is constrained by the hardness of the mineral, as those harder than 7 powder the streak plate instead.[71] Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity Main articles: Cleavage (crystal) and Fracture (mineralogy) Perfect basal cleavage as seen in biotite (black), and good cleavage seen in the matrix (pink orthoclase). By definition, minerals have a characteristic atomic arrangement. Weakness in this crystalline structure causes planes of weakness, and the breakage of a mineral along such planes is termed cleavage. The quality of cleavage can be described based on how cleanly and easily the mineral breaks; common descriptors, in order of decreasing quality, are "perfect", "good", "distinct", and "poor". In particularly transparent minerals, or in thin-section, cleavage can be seen as a series of parallel lines marking the planar surfaces when viewed from the side. Cleavage is not a universal property among minerals; for example, quartz, consisting of extensively interconnected silica tetrahedra, does not have a crystallographic weakness which would allow it to cleave. In contrast, micas, which have perfect basal cleavage, consist of sheets of silica tetrahedra which are very weakly held together.[74][75] As cleavage is a function of crystallography, there are a variety of cleavage types. Cleavage occurs typically in either one, two, three, four, or six directions. Basal cleavage in one direction is a distinctive property of the micas. Two-directional cleavage is described as prismatic, and occurs in minerals such as the amphiboles and pyroxenes. Minerals such as galena or halite have cubic (or isometric) cleavage in three directions, at 90°; when three directions of cleavage are present, but not at 90°, such as in calcite or rhodochrosite, it is termed rhombohedral cleavage. Octahedral cleavage (four directions) is present in fluorite and diamond, and sphalerite has six-directional dodecahedral cleavage.[74][75] Minerals with many cleavages might not break equally well in all of the directions; for example, calcite has good cleavage in three directions, but gypsum has perfect cleavage in one direction, and poor cleavage in two other directions. Angles between cleavage planes vary between minerals. For example, as the amphiboles are double-chain silicates and the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates, the angle between their cleavage planes is different. The pyroxenes cleave in two directions at approximately 90°, whereas the amphiboles distinctively cleave in two directions separated by approximately 120° and 60°. The cleavage angles can be measured with a contact goniometer, which is similar to a protractor.[74][75] Parting, sometimes called "false cleavage", is similar in appearance to cleavage but is instead produced by structural defects in the mineral, as opposed to systematic weakness. Parting varies from crystal to crystal of a mineral, whereas all crystals of a given mineral will cleave if the atomic structure allows for that property. In general, parting is caused by some stress applied to a crystal. The sources of the stresses include deformation (e.g. an increase in pressure), exsolution, or twinning. Minerals that often display parting include the pyroxenes, hematite, magnetite, and corundum.[74][76] When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is termed to have been fractured. There are several types of uneven fracture. The classic example is conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by smooth curved lines. This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals. Other types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly. The latter describes a break along a rough, jagged surface; an example of this property is found in native copper.[77] Tenacity is related to both cleavage and fracture. Whereas fracture and cleavage describes the surfaces that are created when a mineral is broken, tenacity describes how resistant a mineral is to such breaking. Minerals can be described as brittle, ductile, malleable, sectile, flexible, or elastic.[78] Specific gravity Galena, PbS, is a mineral with a high specific gravity. Specific gravity numerically describes the density of a mineral. The dimensions of density are mass divided by volume with units: kg/m3 or g/cm3. Specific gravity measures how much water a mineral sample displaces. Defined as the quotient of the mass of the sample and difference between the weight of the sample in air and its corresponding weight in water, specific gravity is a unitless ratio. Among most minerals, this property is not diagnostic. Rock forming minerals – typically silicates or occasionally carbonates – have a specific gravity of 2.5–3.5.[79] High specific gravity is a diagnostic property of a mineral. A variation in chemistry (and consequently, mineral class) correlates to a change in specific gravity. Among more common minerals, oxides and sulfides tend to have a higher specific gravity as they include elements with higher atomic mass. A generalization is that minerals with metallic or adamantine lustre tend to have higher specific gravities than those having a non-metallic to dull lustre. For example, hematite, Fe2O3, has a specific gravity of 5.26[80] while galena, PbS, has a specific gravity of 7.2–7.6,[81] which is a result of their high iron and lead content, respectively. A very high specific gravity becomes very pronounced in native metals; kamacite, an iron-nickel alloy common in iron meteorites has a specific gravity of 7.9,[82] and gold has an observed specific gravity between 15 and 19.3.[79][83] Other properties Carnotite (yellow) is a radioactive uranium-bearing mineral. Other properties can be used to diagnose minerals. These are less general, and apply to specific minerals. Dropping dilute acid (often 10% HCl) onto a mineral aids in distinguishing carbonates from other mineral classes. The acid reacts with the carbonate ([CO3]2−) group, which causes the affected area to effervesce, giving off carbon dioxide gas. This test can be further expanded to test the mineral in its original crystal form or powdered form. An example of this test is done when distinguishing calcite from dolomite, especially within rocks (limestone and dolostone respectively). Calcite immediately effervesces in acid, whereas acid must be applied to powdered dolomite (often to a scratched surface in a rock), for it to effervesce.[84] Zeolite minerals will not effervesce in acid; instead, they become frosted after 5–10 minutes, and if left in acid for a day, they dissolve or become a silica gel.[85] When tested, magnetism is a very conspicuous property of minerals. Among common minerals, magnetite exhibits this property strongly, and magnetism is also present, albeit not as strongly, in pyrrhotite and ilmenite.[84] Some minerals exhibit electrical properties – for example, quartz is piezoelectric – but electrical properties are rarely used as diagnostic criteria for minerals because of incomplete data and natural variation.[86] Minerals can also be tested for taste or smell. Halite, NaCl, is table salt; its potassium-bearing counterpart, sylvite, has a pronounced bitter taste. Sulfides have a characteristic smell, especially as samples are fractured, reacting, or powdered.[84] Radioactivity is a rare property; minerals may be composed of radioactive elements. They could be a defining constituent, such as uranium in uraninite, autunite, and carnotite, or as trace impurities. In the latter case, the decay of a radioactive element damages the mineral crystal; the result, termed a radioactive halo or pleochroic halo, is observable with various techniques, such as thin-section petrography.[84] Classification As the composition of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicon and oxygen, silicate elements are by far the most important class of minerals in terms of rock formation and diversity. However, non-silicate minerals are of great economic importance, especially as ores.[87][88] Non-silicate minerals are subdivided into several other classes by their dominant chemistry, which includes native elements, sulfides, halides, oxides and hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and organic compounds. Most non-silicate mineral species are rare (constituting in total 8% of the Earth's crust), although some are relatively common, such as calcite, pyrite, magnetite, and hematite. There are two major structural styles observed in non-silicates: close-packing and silicate-like linked tetrahedra. close-packed structures is a way to densely pack atoms while minimizing interstitial space. Hexagonal close-packing involves stacking layers where every other layer is the same ("ababab"), whereas cubic close-packing involves stacking groups of three layers ("abcabcabc"). Analogues to linked silica tetrahedra include SO4 (sulfate), PO4 (phosphate), AsO4 (arsenate), and VO4 (vanadate). The non-silicates have great economic importance, as they concentrate elements more than the silicate minerals do.[89] The largest grouping of minerals by far are the silicates; most rocks are composed of greater than 95% silicate minerals, and over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of these minerals.[90] The two main constituents of silicates are silicon and oxygen, which are the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust. Other common elements in silicate minerals correspond to other common elements in the Earth's crust, such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium.[91] Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas. Silicates Main article: Silicate minerals Aegirine, an iron-sodium clinopyroxene, is part of the inosilicate subclass. The base unit of a silicate mineral is the [SiO4]4− tetrahedron. In the vast majority of cases, silicon is in four-fold or tetrahedral coordination with oxygen. In very high-pressure situations, silicon will be in six-fold or octahedral coordination, such as in the perovskite structure or the quartz polymorph stishovite (SiO2). In the latter case, the mineral no longer has a silicate structure, but that of rutile (TiO2), and its associated group, which are simple oxides. These silica tetrahedra are then polymerized to some degree to create various structures, such as one-dimensional chains, two-dimensional sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. The basic silicate mineral where no polymerization of the tetrahedra has occurred requires other elements to balance out the base 4- charge. In other silicate structures, different combinations of elements are required to balance out the resultant negative charge. It is common for the Si4+ to be substituted by Al3+ because of similarity in ionic radius and charge; in those cases, the [AlO4]5− tetrahedra form the same structures as do the unsubstituted tetrahedra, but their charge-balancing requirements are different.[92] The degree of polymerization can be described by both the structure formed and how many tetrahedral corners (or coordinating oxygens) are shared (for aluminium and silicon in tetrahedral sites).[93] Orthosilicates (or nesosilicates) have no linking of polyhedra, thus tetrahedra share no corners. Disilicates (or sorosilicates) have two tetrahedra sharing one oxygen atom. Inosilicates are chain silicates; single-chain silicates have two shared corners, whereas double-chain silicates have two or three shared corners. In phyllosilicates, a sheet structure is formed which requires three shared oxygens; in the case of double-chain silicates, some tetrahedra must share two corners instead of three as otherwise a sheet structure would result. Framework silicates, or tectosilicates, have tetrahedra that share all four corners. The ring silicates, or cyclosilicates, only need tetrahedra to share two corners to form the cyclical structure.[94] The silicate subclasses are described below in order of decreasing polymerization. Tectosilicates Natrolite is a mineral series in the zeolite group; this sample has a very prominent acicular crystal habit. Tectosilicates, also known as framework silicates, have the highest degree of polymerization. With all corners of a tetrahedra shared, the silicon:oxygen ratio becomes 1:2. Examples are quartz, the feldspars, feldspathoids, and the zeolites. Framework silicates tend to be particularly chemically stable as a result of strong covalent bonds.[95] Forming 12% of the Earth's crust, quartz (SiO2) is the most abundant mineral species. It is characterized by its high chemical and physical resistivity. Quartz has several polymorphs, including tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, high-pressure coesite, and ultra-high pressure stishovite. The latter mineral can only be formed on Earth by meteorite impacts, and its structure has been composed so much that it had changed from a silicate structure to that of rutile (TiO2). The silica polymorph that is most stable at the Earth's surface is α-quartz. Its counterpart, β-quartz, is present only at high temperatures and pressures (changes to α-quartz below 573 °C at 1 bar). These two polymorphs differ by a "kinking" of bonds; this change in structure gives β-quartz greater symmetry than α-quartz, and they are thus also called high quartz (β) and low quartz (α).[90][96] Feldspars are the most abundant group in the Earth's crust, at about 50%. In the feldspars, Al3+ substitutes for Si4+, which creates a charge imbalance that must be accounted for by the addition of cations. The base structure becomes either [AlSi3O8]− or [Al2Si2O8]2− There are 22 mineral species of feldspars, subdivided into two major subgroups – alkali and plagioclase – and two less common groups – celsian and banalsite. The alkali feldspars are most commonly in a series between potassium-rich orthoclase and sodium-rich albite; in the case of plagioclase, the most common series ranges from albite to calcium-rich anorthite. Crystal twinning is common in feldspars, especially polysynthetic twins in plagioclase and Carlsbad twins in alkali feldspars. If the latter subgroup cools slowly from a melt, it forms exsolution lamellae because the two components – orthoclase and albite – are unstable in solid solution. Exsolution can be on a scale from microscopic to readily observable in hand-sample; perthitic texture forms when Na-rich feldspar exsolve in a K-rich host. The opposite texture (antiperthitic), where K-rich feldspar exsolves in a Na-rich host, is very rare.[97] Feldspathoids are structurally similar to feldspar, but differ in that they form in Si-deficient conditions, which allows for further substitution by Al3+. As a result, feldsapthoids cannot be associated with quartz. A common example of a feldsapthoid is nepheline ((Na, K)AlSiO4); compared to alkali feldspar, nepheline has an Al2O3:SiO2 ratio of 1:2, as opposed to 1:6 in the feldspar.[98] Zeolites often have distinctive crystal habits, occurring in needles, plates, or blocky masses. They form in the presence of water at low temperatures and pressures, and have channels and voids in their structure. Zeolites have several industrial applications, especially in waste water treatment.[99] Phyllosilicates Muscovite, a mineral species in the mica group, within the phyllosilicate subclass Phyllosilicates consist of sheets of polymerized tetrahedra. They are bound at three oxygen sites, which gives a characteristic silicon:oxygen ratio of 2:5. Important examples include the mica, chlorite, and the kaolinite-serpentine groups. The sheets are weakly bound by van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds, which causes a crystallographic weakness, in turn leading to a prominent basal cleavage among the phyllosilicates.[100] In addition to the tetrahedra, phyllosilicates have a sheet of octahedra (elements in six-fold coordination by oxygen) that balance out the basic tetrahedra, which have a negative charge (e.g. [Si4O10]4−) These tetrahedra (T) and octahedra (O) sheets are stacked in a variety of combinations to create phyllosilicate groups. Within an octahedral sheet, there are three octahedral sites in a unit structure; however, not all of the sites may be occupied. In that case, the mineral is termed dioctahedral, whereas in other case it is termed trioctahedral.[101] The kaolinite-serpentine group consists of T-O stacks (the 1:1 clay minerals); their hardness ranges from 2 to 4, as the sheets are held by hydrogen bonds. The 2:1 clay minerals (pyrophyllite-talc) consist of T-O-T stacks, but they are softer (hardness from 1 to 2), as they are instead held together by van der Waals forces. These two groups of minerals are subgrouped by octahedral occupation; specifically, kaolinite and pyrophyllite are dioctahedral whereas serpentine and talc trioctahedral.[102] Micas are also T-O-T-stacked phyllosilicates, but differ from the other T-O-T and T-O-stacked subclass members in that they incorporate aluminium into the tetrahedral sheets (clay minerals have Al3+ in octahedral sites). Common examples of micas are muscovite, and the biotite series. The chlorite group is related to mica group, but a brucite-like (Mg(OH)2) layer between the T-O-T stacks.[103] Because of their chemical structure, phyllosilicates typically have flexible, elastic, transparent layers that are electrical insulators and can be split into very thin flakes. Micas can be used in electronics as insulators, in construction, as optical filler, or even cosmetics. Chrysotile, a species of serpentine, is the most common mineral species in industrial asbestos, as it is less dangerous in terms of health than the amphibole asbestos.[104] Inosilicates Asbestiform tremolite, part of the amphibole group in the inosilicate subclass Inosilicates consist of tetrahedra repeatedly bonded in chains. These chains can be single, where a tetrahedron is bound to two others to form a continuous chain; alternatively, two chains can be merged to create double-chain silicates. Single-chain silicates have a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:3 (e.g. [Si2O6]4−), whereas the double-chain variety has a ratio of 4:11, e.g. [Si8O22]12−. Inosilicates contain two important rock-forming mineral groups; single-chain silicates are most commonly pyroxenes, while double-chain silicates are often amphiboles.[105] Higher-order chains exist (e.g. three-member, four-member, five-member chains, etc.) but they are rare.[106] The pyroxene group consists of 21 mineral species.[107] Pyroxenes have a general structure formula of XY(Si2O6), where X is an octahedral site, while Y can vary in coordination number from six to eight. Most varieties of pyroxene consist of permutations of Ca2+, Fe2+ and Mg2+ to balance the negative charge on the backbone. Pyroxenes are common in the Earth's crust (about 10%) and are a key constituent of mafic igneous rocks.[108] Page semi-protected Crystal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search "Crystalline" and "Xtal" redirect here. For the Björk song, see Crystalline (song). For other uses, see Xtal (disambiguation). This article is about crystalline solids. For the type of glass, see Lead glass. For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A crystal of amethyst quartz Microscopically, a single crystal has atoms in a near-perfect periodic arrangement; a polycrystal is composed of many microscopic crystals (called "crystallites" or "grains"); and an amorphous solid (such as glass) has no periodic arrangement even microscopically. A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.[1][2] In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. The word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος (krustallos), meaning both "ice" and "rock crystal",[3] from κρύος (kruos), "icy cold, frost".[4][5] Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt. Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and ice. A third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics. Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements.[6][7][8] Contents 1 Crystal structure (microscopic) 2 Crystal faces and shapes 3 Occurrence in nature 3.1 Rocks 3.2 Ice 3.3 Organigenic crystals 4 Polymorphism and allotropy 5 Crystallization 6 Defects, impurities, and twinning 7 Chemical bonds 8 Quasicrystals 9 Special properties from anisotropy 10 Crystallography 11 Image gallery 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading Crystal structure (microscopic) Halite (table salt, NaCl): Microscopic and macroscopic Halite crystal (microscopic) Microscopic structure of a halite crystal. (Purple is sodium ion, green is chlorine ion.) There is cubic symmetry in the atoms' arrangement. Halite crystal (Macroscopic ) Macroscopic (~16cm) halite crystal. The right-angles between crystal faces are due to the cubic symmetry of the atoms' arrangement. Main article: Crystal structure The scientific definition of a "crystal" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (Quasicrystals are an exception, see below.) Not all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a polycrystalline structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called "crystallites" or "grains") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does not have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the grain boundaries. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its unit cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal. The symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called crystallographic space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system (where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as halite shown at right) or hexagonal crystal system (where the crystals may form hexagons, such as ordinary water ice). Crystal faces and shapes As a halite crystal is growing, new atoms can very easily attach to the parts of the surface with rough atomic-scale structure and many dangling bonds. Therefore, these parts of the crystal grow out very quickly (yellow arrows). Eventually, the whole surface consists of smooth, stable faces, where new atoms cannot as easily attach themselves. Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. These shape characteristics are not necessary for a crystal—a crystal is scientifically defined by its microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape—but the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy to see. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces. Anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces (also called facets) of a euhedral crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal: they are planes of relatively low Miller index.[9] This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others (lower surface energy). As a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces. Therefore, the flat surfaces tend to grow larger and smoother, until the whole crystal surface consists of these plane surfaces. (See diagram on right.) One of the oldest techniques in the science of crystallography consists of measuring the three-dimensional orientations of the faces of a crystal, and using them to infer the underlying crystal symmetry. A crystal's habit is its visible external shape. This is determined by the crystal structure (which restricts the possible facet orientations), the specific crystal chemistry and bonding (which may favor some facet types over others), and the conditions under which the crystal formed. Occurrence in nature Ice crystals Fossil shell with calcite crystals Rocks By volume and weight, the largest concentrations of crystals in the Earth are part of its solid bedrock. Crystals found in rocks typically range in size from a fraction of a millimetre to several centimetres across, although exceptionally large crystals are occasionally found. As of 1999, the world's largest known naturally occurring crystal is a crystal of beryl from Malakialina, Madagascar, 18 m (59 ft) long and 3.5 m (11 ft) in diameter, and weighing 380,000 kg (840,000 lb).[10] Some crystals have formed by magmatic and metamorphic processes, giving origin to large masses of crystalline rock. The vast majority of igneous rocks are formed from molten magma and the degree of crystallization depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified. Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under great pressures, have completely crystallized; but many kinds of lava were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly, and in this latter group a small amount of amorphous or glassy matter is common. Other crystalline rocks, the metamorphic rocks such as marbles, mica-schists and quartzites, are recrystallized. This means that they were at first fragmental rocks like limestone, shale and sandstone and have never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution, but the high temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism have acted on them by erasing their original structures and inducing recrystallization in the solid state.[11] Other rock crystals have formed out of precipitation from fluids, commonly water, to form druses or quartz veins. The evaporites such as halite, gypsum and some limestones have been deposited from aqueous solution, mostly owing to evaporation in arid climates. Ice Water-based ice in the form of snow, sea ice and glaciers is a very common manifestation of crystalline or polycrystalline matter on Earth.[citation needed] A single snowflake is a single crystal or a collection of crystals,[12] while an ice cube is a polycrystal. Organigenic crystals Many living organisms are able to produce crystals, for example calcite and aragonite in the case of most molluscs or hydroxylapatite in the case of vertebrates. Polymorphism and allotropy Main articles: Polymorphism (materials science) and Allotropy The same group of atoms can often solidify in many different ways. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic Ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. The different polymorphs are usually called different phases. In addition, the same atoms may be able to form noncrystalline phases. For example, water can also form amorphous ice, while SiO2 can form both fused silica (an amorphous glass) and quartz (a crystal). Likewise, if a substance can form crystals, it can also form polycrystals. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond and graphite are two crystalline forms of carbon, while amorphous carbon is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have wildly different properties. For example, diamond is among the hardest substances known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant. Polyamorphism is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one amorphous solid form. Crystallization Main articles: Crystallization and Crystal growth Vertical cooling crystallizer in a beet sugar factory. Crystallization is the process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in a fluid. (More rarely, crystals may be deposited directly from gas; see thin-film deposition and epitaxy.) Crystallization is a complex and extensively-studied field, because depending on the conditions, a single fluid can solidify into many different possible forms. It can form a single crystal, perhaps with various possible phases, stoichiometries, impurities, defects, and habits. Or, it can form a polycrystal, with various possibilities for the size, arrangement, orientation, and phase of its grains. The final form of the solid is determined by the conditions under which the fluid is being solidified, such as the chemistry of the fluid, the ambient pressure, the temperature, and the speed with which all these parameters are changing. Specific industrial techniques to produce large single crystals (called boules) include the Czochralski process and the Bridgman technique. Other less exotic methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including hydrothermal synthesis, sublimation, or simply solvent-based crystallization. Large single crystals can be created by geological processes. For example, selenite crystals in excess of 10 meters are found in the Cave of the Crystals in Naica, Mexico.[13] For more details on geological crystal formation, see above. Crystals can also be formed by biological processes, see above. Conversely, some organisms have special techniques to prevent crystallization from occurring, such as antifreeze proteins. Defects, impurities, and twinning Main articles: Crystallographic defect, Impurity, Crystal twinning, and Mosaicity Two types of crystallographic defects. Top right: edge dislocation. Bottom right: screw dislocation. An ideal crystal has every atom in a perfect, exactly repeating pattern.[14] However, in reality, most crystalline materials have a variety of crystallographic defects, places where the crystal's pattern is interrupted. The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials. A few examples of crystallographic defects include vacancy defects (an empty space where an atom should fit), interstitial defects (an extra atom squeezed in where it does not fit), and dislocations (see figure at right). Dislocations are especially important in materials science, because they help determine the mechanical strength of materials. Another common type of crystallographic defect is an impurity, meaning that the "wrong" type of atom is present in a crystal. For example, a perfect crystal of diamond would only contain carbon atoms, but a real crystal might perhaps contain a few boron atoms as well. These boron impurities change the diamond's color to slightly blue. Likewise, the only difference between ruby and sapphire is the type of impurities present in a corundum crystal. Twinned pyrite crystal group. In semiconductors, a special type of impurity, called a dopant, drastically changes the crystal's electrical properties. Semiconductor devices, such as transistors, are made possible largely by putting different semiconductor dopants into different places, in specific patterns. Twinning is a phenomenon somewhere between a crystallographic defect and a grain boundary. Like a grain boundary, a twin boundary has different crystal orientations on its two sides. But unlike a grain boundary, the orientations are not random, but related in a specific, mirror-image way. Mosaicity is a spread of crystal plane orientations. A mosaic crystal is supposed to consist of smaller crystalline units that are somewhat misaligned with respect to each other. Chemical bonds In general, solids can be held together by various types of chemical bonds, such as metallic bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, van der Waals bonds, and others. None of these are necessarily crystalline or non-crystalline. However, there are some general trends as follows. Metals are almost always polycrystalline, though there are exceptions like amorphous metal and single-crystal metals. The latter are grown synthetically. (A microscopically-small piece of metal may naturally form into a single crystal, but larger pieces generally do not.) Ionic compound materials are usually crystalline or polycrystalline. In practice, large salt crystals can be created by solidification of a molten fluid, or by crystallization out of a solution. Covalently bonded solids (sometimes called covalent network solids) are also very common, notable examples being diamond and quartz. Weak van der Waals forces also help hold together certain crystals, such as crystalline molecular solids, as well as the interlayer bonding in graphite. Polymer materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization—and sometimes polymers are completely amorphous. Quasicrystals The material holmium–magnesium–zinc (Ho–Mg–Zn) forms quasicrystals, which can take on the macroscopic shape of a dodecahedron. (Only a quasicrystal, not a normal crystal, can take this shape.) The edges are 2 mm long. Main article: Quasicrystal A quasicrystal consists of arrays of atoms that are ordered but not strictly periodic. They have many attributes in common with ordinary crystals, such as displaying a discrete pattern in x-ray diffraction, and the ability to form shapes with smooth, flat faces. Quasicrystals are most famous for their ability to show five-fold symmetry, which is impossible for an ordinary periodic crystal (see crystallographic restriction theorem). The International Union of Crystallography has redefined the term "crystal" to include both ordinary periodic crystals and quasicrystals ("any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction diagram"[15]). Quasicrystals, first discovered in 1982, are quite rare in practice. Only about 100 solids are known to form quasicrystals, compared to about 400,000 periodic crystals known in 2004.[16] The 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Dan Shechtman for the discovery of quasicrystals.[17] Special properties from anisotropy See also: Crystal optics Crystals can have certain special electrical, optical, and mechanical properties that glass and polycrystals normally cannot. These properties are related to the anisotropy of the crystal, i.e. the lack of rotational symmetry in its atomic arrangement. One such property is the piezoelectric effect, where a voltage across the crystal can shrink or stretch it. Another is birefringence, where a double image appears when looking through a crystal. Moreover, various properties of a crystal, including electrical conductivity, electrical permittivity, and Young's modulus, may be different in different directions in a crystal. For example, graphite crystals consist of a stack of sheets, and although each individual sheet is mechanically very strong, the sheets are rather loosely bound to each other. Therefore, the mechanical strength of the material is quite different depending on the direction of stress. Not all crystals have all of these properties. Conversely, these properties are not quite exclusive to crystals. They can appear in glasses or polycrystals that have been made anisotropic by working or stress—for example, stress-induced birefringence. Crystallography Main article: Crystallography Crystallography is the science of measuring the crystal structure (in other words, the atomic arrangement) of a crystal. One widely used crystallography technique is X-ray diffraction. Large numbers of known crystal structures are stored in crystallographic databases. Image gallery Insulin crystals grown in earth orbit. Hoar frost: A type of ice crystal (picture taken from a distance of about 5 cm). Gallium, a metal that easily forms large crystals. An apatite crystal sits front and center on cherry-red rhodochroite rhombs, purple fluorite cubes, quartz and a dusting of brass-yellow pyrite cubes. Boules of silicon, like this one, are an important type of industrially-produced single crystal. A specimen consisting of a bornite-coated chalcopyrite crystal nestled in a bed of clear quartz crystals and lustrous pyrite crystals. The bornite-coated crystal is up to 1.5 cm across. See also Atomic packing factor Anticrystal Cocrystal Colloidal crystal Crystal growth Crystal oscillator Liquid crystal Time crystal References Stephen Lower. "Chem1 online textbook—States of matter". Retrieved 2016-09-19. Ashcroft and Mermin (1976). Solid state physics. κρύσταλλος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library κρύος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language". Kreus. 2000. Regal, Brian. (2009). Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia. Greenwood. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-313-35507-3 Patti Wigington (31 August 2016). "Using Crystals and Gemstones in Magic". About.com. Retrieved 14 November 2016. "The Magic of Crystals and Gemstones". WitchesLore. 14 December 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2016. The surface science of metal oxides, by Victor E. Henrich, P. A. Cox, page 28, google books link G. Cressey and I. F. Mercer, (1999) Crystals, London, Natural History Museum, page 58 One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Flett, John Smith (1911). "Petrology". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Libbrecht, Kenneth; Wing, Rachel (2015-09-01). The Snowflake: Winter's Frozen Artistry. Voyageur Press. ISBN 9781627887335. "Cave of Crystal Giants — National Geographic Magazine". nationalgeographic.com. Britain), Science Research Council (Great (1972). Report of the Council. H.M. Stationery Office. International Union of Crystallography (1992). "Report of the Executive Committee for 1991". Acta Crystallogr. A. 48 (6): 922. doi:10.1107/S0108767392008328. PMC 1826680 Freely accessible. Steurer W. (2004). "Twenty years of structure research on quasicrystals. Part I. Pentagonal, octagonal, decagonal and dodecagonal quasicrystals". Z. Kristallogr. 219 (7–2004): 391–446. Bibcode:2004ZK....219..391S. doi:10.1524/zkri.219.7.391.35643. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2011". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2011-12-29. Further reading Find more about Crystal at Wikipedia's sister projects Face (geometry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search In solid geometry, a face is a flat (planar) surface that forms part of the boundary of a solid object;[1] a three-dimensional solid bounded exclusively by flat faces is a polyhedron. In more technical treatments of the geometry of polyhedra and higher-dimensional polytopes, the term is also used to mean an element of any dimension of a more general polytope (in any number of dimensions).[2] Contents 1 Polygonal face 1.1 Number of polygonal faces of a polyhedron 2 k-face 2.1 Cell or 3-face 2.2 Facet or (n-1)-face 2.3 Ridge or (n-2)-face 2.4 Peak or (n-3)-face 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Polygonal face In elementary geometry, a face is a polygon on the boundary of a polyhedron.[2][3] Other names for a polygonal face include side of a polyhedron, and tile of a Euclidean plane tessellation. For example, any of the six squares that bound a cube is a face of the cube. Sometimes "face" is also used to refer to the 2-dimensional features of a 4-polytope. With this meaning, the 4-dimensional tesseract has 24 square faces, each sharing two of 8 cubic cells. Regular examples by Schläfli symbol Polyhedron Star polyhedron Euclidean tiling Hyperbolic tiling 4-polytope {4,3} {5/2,5} {4,4} {4,5} {4,3,3} Hexahedron.png The cube has 3 square faces per vertex. Small stellated dodecahedron.png The small stellated dodecahedron has 5 pentagrammic faces per vertex. Tile 4,4.svg The square tiling in the Euclidean plane has 4 square faces per vertex. H2 tiling 245-4.png The order-5 square tiling has 5 square faces per vertex. Hypercube.svg The tesseract has 3 square faces per edge. Some other polygons, which are not faces, are also important for polyhedra and tessellations. These include Petrie polygons, vertex figures and facets (flat polygons formed by coplanar vertices which do not lie in the same face of the polyhedron). Number of polygonal faces of a polyhedron Any convex polyhedron's surface has Euler characteristic {\displaystyle V-E+F=2,} V-E+F=2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number of faces. This equation is known as Euler's polyhedron formula. Thus the number of faces is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of vertices. For example, a cube has 12 edges and 8 vertices, and hence 6 faces. k-face In higher-dimensional geometry the faces of a polytope are features of all dimensions.[2][4][5] A face of dimension k is called a k-face. For example, the polygonal faces of an ordinary polyhedron are 2-faces. In set theory, the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself and the empty set where the empty set is for consistency given a "dimension" of −1. For any n-polytope (n-dimensional polytope), −1 ≤ k ≤ n. For example, with this meaning, the faces of a cube include the empty set, its vertices (0-faces), edges (1-faces) and squares (2-faces), and the cube itself (3-face). All of the following are the faces of a 4-dimensional polytope: 4-face – the 4-dimensional 4-polytope itself 3-faces – 3-dimensional cells (polyhedral faces) 2-faces – 2-dimensional faces (polygonal faces) 1-faces – 1-dimensional edges 0-faces – 0-dimensional vertices the empty set, which has dimension −1 In some areas of mathematics, such as polyhedral combinatorics, a polytope is by definition convex. Formally, a face of a polytope P is the intersection of P with any closed halfspace whose boundary is disjoint from the interior of P.[6] From this definition it follows that the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself and the empty set.[4][5] In other areas of mathematics, such as the theories of abstract polytopes and star polytopes, the requirement for convexity is relaxed. Abstract theory still requires that the set of faces include the polytope itself and the empty set. Cell or 3-face A cell is a polyhedral element (3-face) of a 4-dimensional polytope or 3-dimensional tessellation, or higher. Cells are facets for 4-polytopes and 3-honeycombs. Examples: Regular examples by Schläfli symbol 4-polytopes 3-honeycombs {4,3,3} {5,3,3} {4,3,4} {5,3,4} Hypercube.svg The tesseract has 3 cubic cells (3-faces) per edge. Schlegel wireframe 120-cell.png The 120-cell has 3 dodecahedral cells (3-faces) per edge. Partial cubic honeycomb.png The cubic honeycomb fills Euclidean 3-space with cubes, with 4 cells (3-faces) per edge. Hyperbolic orthogonal dodecahedral honeycomb.png The order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb fills 3-dimensional hyperbolic space with dodecahedra, 4 cells (3-faces) per edge. Facet or (n-1)-face In higher-dimensional geometry, the facets (also called a hyperface[7]) of a n-polytope are the (n-1)-faces of dimension one less than the polytope itself.[8] A polytope is bounded by its facets. For example: The facets of a line segment are its 0-faces or vertices. The facets of a polygon are its 1-faces or edges. The facets of a polyhedron or plane tiling are its 2-faces. The facets of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 3-faces. The facets of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 4-faces. Ridge or (n-2)-face In related terminology, a (n − 2)-face of an n-polytope is called a ridge (also subfacet).[9] A ridge is seen as the boundary between exactly two facets of a polytope or honeycomb. For example: The ridges of a 2D polygon or 1D tiling are its 0-faces or vertices. The ridges of a 3D polyhedron or plane tiling are its 1-faces or edges. The ridges of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 2-faces or simply faces. The ridges of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 3-faces or cells. Peak or (n-3)-face A (n − 3)-face of an n-polytope is called a peak. A peak contain a rotational axis of facets and ridges in a regular polytope or honeycomb. Page semi-protected Square From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Square (geometry)) Jump to navigationJump to search For other uses, see Square (disambiguation). Square Regular polygon 4 annotated.svg A regular quadrilateral (tetragon) Type Regular polygon Edges and vertices 4 Schläfli symbol {4} Coxeter diagram CDel node 1.pngCDel 4.pngCDel node.png CDel node 1.pngCDel 2.pngCDel node 1.png Symmetry group Dihedral (D4), order 2×4 Internal angle (degrees) 90° Dual polygon Self Properties Convex, cyclic, equilateral, isogonal, isotoxal In geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles (90-degree angles, or (100-gradian angles or right angles).[1] It can also be defined as a rectangle in which two adjacent sides have equal length. A square with vertices ABCD would be denoted {\displaystyle \square } \square ABCD. Contents 1 Characterizations 2 Properties 2.1 Perimeter and area 2.2 Other facts 3 Coordinates and equations 4 Construction 5 Symmetry 6 Squares inscribed in triangles 7 Squaring the circle 8 Non-Euclidean geometry 9 Crossed square 10 Graphs 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Characterizations A convex quadrilateral is a square if and only if it is any one of the following:[2][3] a rectangle with two adjacent equal sides a rhombus with a right vertex angle a rhombus with all angles equal a parallelogram with one right vertex angle and two adjacent equal sides a quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right angles a quadrilateral where the diagonals are equal and are the perpendicular bisectors of each other, i.e. a rhombus with equal diagonals a convex quadrilateral with successive sides a, b, c, d whose area is {\displaystyle A={\tfrac {1}{2}}(a^{2}+c^{2})={\tfrac {1}{2}}(b^{2}+d^{2}).} {\displaystyle A={\tfrac {1}{2}}(a^{2}+c^{2})={\tfrac {1}{2}}(b^{2}+d^{2}).}[4]:Corollary 15 Properties A square is a special case of a rhombus (equal sides, opposite equal angles), a kite (two pairs of adjacent equal sides), a trapezoid (one pair of opposite sides parallel), a parallelogram (all opposite sides parallel), a quadrilateral or tetragon (four-sided polygon), and a rectangle (opposite sides equal, right-angles) and therefore has all the properties of all these shapes, namely:[5] The diagonals of a square bisect each other and meet at 90° The diagonals of a square bisect its angles. Opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length. All four angles of a square are equal. (Each is 360°/4 = 90°, so every angle of a square is a right angle.) All four sides of a square are equal. The diagonals of a square are equal. The square is the n=2 case of the families of n-hypercubes and n-orthoplexes. A square has Schläfli symbol {4}. A truncated square, t{4}, is an octagon, {8}. An alternated square, h{4}, is a digon, {2}. Perimeter and area The area of a square is the product of the length of its sides. The perimeter of a square whose four sides have length {\displaystyle \ell } \ell is {\displaystyle P=4\ell } P=4\ell and the area A is {\displaystyle A=\ell ^{2}.} A=\ell ^{2}. In classical times, the second power was described in terms of the area of a square, as in the above formula. This led to the use of the term square to mean raising to the second power. The area can also be calculated using the diagonal d according to {\displaystyle A={\frac {d^{2}}{2}}.} A={\frac {d^{2}}{2}}. In terms of the circumradius R, the area of a square is {\displaystyle A=2R^{2};} A=2R^{2}; since the area of the circle is {\displaystyle \pi R^{2},} \pi R^{2}, the square fills approximately 0.6366 of its circumscribed circle. In terms of the inradius r, the area of the square is {\displaystyle A=4r^{2}.} A=4r^{2}. Because it is a regular polygon, a square is the quadrilateral of least perimeter enclosing a given area. Dually, a square is the quadrilateral containing the largest area within a given perimeter.[6] Indeed, if A and P are the area and perimeter enclosed by a quadrilateral, then the following isoperimetric inequality holds: {\displaystyle 16A\leq P^{2}} {\displaystyle 16A\leq P^{2}} with equality if and only if the quadrilateral is a square. Other facts The diagonals of a square are {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\sqrt {2}}} \scriptstyle {\sqrt {2}} (about 1.414) times the length of a side of the square. This value, known as the square root of 2 or Pythagoras' constant, was the first number proven to be irrational. A square can also be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles. If a figure is both a rectangle (right angles) and a rhombus (equal edge lengths), then it is a square. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is {\displaystyle \pi /2} \pi /2 (about 1.5708) times the area of the square. If a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is {\displaystyle \pi /4} \pi /4 (about 0.7854) times the area of the square. A square has a larger area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter.[7] A square tiling is one of three regular tilings of the plane (the others are the equilateral triangle and the regular hexagon). The square is in two families of polytopes in two dimensions: hypercube and the cross-polytope. The Schläfli symbol for the square is {4}. The square is a highly symmetric object. There are four lines of reflectional symmetry and it has rotational symmetry of order 4 (through 90°, 180° and 270°). Its symmetry group is the dihedral group D4. If the inscribed circle of a square ABCD has tangency points E on AB, F on BC, G on CD, and H on DA, then for any point P on the inscribed circle,[8] {\displaystyle 2(PH^{2}-PE^{2})=PD^{2}-PB^{2}.} 2(PH^{2}-PE^{2})=PD^{2}-PB^{2}. If {\displaystyle d_{i}} d_{i} is the distance from an arbitrary point in the plane to the i-th vertex of a square and {\displaystyle R} R is the circumradius of the square, then[9] {\displaystyle {\frac {d_{1}^{4}+d_{2}^{4}+d_{3}^{4}+d_{4}^{4}}{4}}+3R^{4}=\left({\frac {d_{1}^{2}+d_{2}^{2}+d_{3}^{2}+d_{4}^{2}}{4}}+R^{2}\right)^{2}.} {\displaystyle {\frac {d_{1}^{4}+d_{2}^{4}+d_{3}^{4}+d_{4}^{4}}{4}}+3R^{4}=\left({\frac {d_{1}^{2}+d_{2}^{2}+d_{3}^{2}+d_{4}^{2}}{4}}+R^{2}\right)^{2}.} Coordinates and equations {\displaystyle |x|+|y|=2} |x|+|y|=2 plotted on Cartesian coordinates. The coordinates for the vertices of a square with vertical and horizontal sides, centered at the origin and with side length 2 are (±1, ±1), while the interior of this square consists of all points (xi, yi) with −1 < xi < 1 and −1 < yi < 1. The equation {\displaystyle \max(x^{2},y^{2})=1} \max(x^{2},y^{2})=1 specifies the boundary of this square. This equation means "x2 or y2, whichever is larger, equals 1." The circumradius of this square (the radius of a circle drawn through the square's vertices) is half the square's diagonal, and equals {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\sqrt {2}}} \scriptstyle {\sqrt {2}}. Then the circumcircle has the equation {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=2.} x^{2}+y^{2}=2. Alternatively the equation {\displaystyle \left|x-a\right|+\left|y-b\right|=r.} \left|x-a\right|+\left|y-b\right|=r. can also be used to describe the boundary of a square with center coordinates (a, b) and a horizontal or vertical radius of r. Construction The following animations show how to construct a square using a compass and straightedge. This is possible as 4 = 22, a power of two. Square at a given circumcircle Square at a given side length, right angle by using Thales' theorem Square at a given diagonal Symmetry The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices (d for diagonal) or edges (p for perpendiculars) Cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as g for their central gyration orders. Full symmetry of the square is r12 and no symmetry is labeled a1. The square has Dih4 symmetry, order 8. There are 2 dihedral subgroups: Dih2, Dih1, and 3 cyclic subgroups: Z4, Z2, and Z1. A square is a special case of many lower symmetry quadrilaterals: a rectangle with two adjacent equal sides a quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right angles a parallelogram with one right angle and two adjacent equal sides a rhombus with a right angle a rhombus with all angles equal a rhombus with equal diagonals These 6 symmetries express 8 distinct symmetries on a square. John Conway labels these by a letter and group order.[10] Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular quadrilaterals. r8 is full symmetry of the square, and a1 is no symmetry. d4, is the symmetry of a rectangle and p4, is the symmetry of a rhombus. These two forms are duals of each other and have half the symmetry order of the square. d2 is the symmetry of an isosceles trapezoid, and p2 is the symmetry of a kite. g2 defines the geometry of a parallelogram. Only the g4 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as a square with directed edges. Squares inscribed in triangles Main article: Triangle § Squares Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares (squares in its interior such that all four of a square's vertices lie on a side of the triangle, so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle). In a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle's right angle, so a right triangle has only two distinct inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square, with a side coinciding with part of the triangle's longest side. The fraction of the triangle's area that is filled by the square is no more than 1/2. Squaring the circle Squaring the circle is the problem, proposed by ancient geometers, of constructing a square with the same area as a given circle by using only a finite number of steps with compass and straightedge. In 1882, the task was proven to be impossible, as a consequence of the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem which proves that pi (π) is a transcendental number, rather than an algebraic irrational number; that is, it is not the root of any polynomial with rational coefficients. Non-Euclidean geometry In non-Euclidean geometry, squares are more generally polygons with 4 equal sides and equal angles. In spherical geometry, a square is a polygon whose edges are great circle arcs of equal distance, which meet at equal angles. Unlike the square of plane geometry, the angles of such a square are larger than a right angle. Larger spherical squares have larger angles. In hyperbolic geometry, squares with right angles do not exist. Rather, squares in hyperbolic geometry have angles of less than right angles. Larger hyperbolic squares have smaller angles. Examples: Tetragonal dihedron.png Two squares can tile the sphere with 2 squares around each vertex and 180-degree internal angles. Each square covers an entire hemisphere and their vertices lie along a great circle. This is called a spherical square dihedron. The Schläfli symbol is {4,2}. Square on sphere.svg Six squares can tile the sphere with 3 squares around each vertex and 120-degree internal angles. This is called a spherical cube. The Schläfli symbol is {4,3}. Square on plane.svg Squares can tile the Euclidean plane with 4 around each vertex, with each square having an internal angle of 90°. The Schläfli symbol is {4,4}. Square on hyperbolic plane.png Squares can tile the hyperbolic plane with 5 around each vertex, with each square having 72-degree internal angles. The Schläfli symbol is {4,5}. In fact, for any n ≥ 5 there is a hyperbolic tiling with n squares about each vertex. Crossed square Crossed-square A crossed square is a faceting of the square, a self-intersecting polygon created by removing two opposite edges of a square and reconnecting by its two diagonals. It has half the symmetry of the square, Dih2, order 4. It has the same vertex arrangement as the square, and is vertex-transitive. It appears as two 45-45-90 triangle with a common vertex, but the geometric intersection is not considered a vertex. A crossed square is sometimes likened to a bow tie or butterfly. the crossed rectangle is related, as a faceting of the rectangle, both special cases of crossed quadrilaterals.[11] The interior of a crossed square can have a polygon density of ±1 in each triangle, dependent upon the winding orientation as clockwise or counterclockwise. A square and a crossed square have the following properties in common: Page semi-protected Rectangle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search For the record label, see Rectangle (label). This is a good article. Follow the link for more information. Page semi-protected London From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the capital city. For the region and county of England, see Greater London. For the historic city and financial district within London, see City of London. For other uses, see London (disambiguation). London Capital of England and the United Kingdom London montage. Clicking on an image in the picture causes the browser to load the appropriate article. About this image Clockwise from top: City of London skyline in the foreground with Canary Wharf skyline in the far background, Trafalgar Square, London Eye, Tower Bridge and a London Underground roundel in front of Elizabeth Tower London is located in Southeast EnglandLondonLondon Location within Southeast England Show map of Southeast England Show map of the United Kingdom Show map of Europe Show all Coordinates: 51°30′26″N 0°7′39″WCoordinates: 51°30′26″N 0°7′39″W Sovereign State United Kingdom Country England Region Greater London Settled by Romans AD 47[1] as Londinium Counties City of London & Greater London Districts City of London & 32 boroughs Government • Type Devolved authority • Body Greater London Authority • Elected body London Assembly • Mayor Sadiq Khan (Lab) • London Assembly 14 constituencies • UK Parliament 73 constituencies • European Parliament London constituency Area • Greater London 1,572 km2 (607 sq mi) • Urban 1,737.9 km2 (671.0 sq mi) • Metro 8,382 km2 (3,236 sq mi) Elevation[2] 35 m (115 ft) Population (2016)[4] • Greater London 8,787,892 • Density 5,590/km2 (14,500/sq mi) • Urban 9,787,426 • Metro 14,040,163[3] Demonym(s) Londoner Cockney (colloquial) GVA (2016)[5] • Total £396 billion (US$531 billion)[6] • Per capita £45,046 (US$60,394)[7] Time zone Greenwich Mean Time (UTC) • Summer (DST) British Summer Time (UTC+1) Postcode areas 22 areas[show] Area code(s) 9 area codes[show] Police City of London Police and Metropolitan Police International airports Heathrow (LHR) City (LCY) Outside Greater London: Gatwick (LGW) Stansted (STN) Luton (LTN) Southend (SEN) GeoTLD .london Website london.gov.uk London (/ˈlʌndən/ (About this sound listen) LUN-dən) is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom.[8][9] Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. It was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium.[10] London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1.12-square-mile (2.9 km2) medieval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, "London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Hertfordshire,[11][12][13] which today largely makes up Greater London,[14][15][note 1] a region governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.[16][note 2][17] London is a leading global city[18][19] in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transportation.[20][21][22] It is the world's largest financial centre[23][24][25][26] and has the fifth or sixth largest metropolitan area GDP in the world.[note 3][27][28] London is often regarded as a world cultural capital.[29][30][31] It is the world's most-visited city as measured by international arrivals[32] and has the world's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic.[33] It is the world's leading investment destination,[34][35][36][37] hosting more international retailers[38][39] and ultra high-net-worth individuals[40][41] than any other city. London's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.[42] In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.[43] London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region.[44] Its estimated mid-2016 municipal population (corresponding to Greater London) was 8,787,892,[4] the largest of any city in the European Union[45] and accounting for 13.4% of the UK population.[46] London's urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census.[47] The city's metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 14,040,163 inhabitants in 2016,[note 4][3] while the Greater London Authority states the population of the city-region (covering a large part of the south east) as 22.7 million.[48][49] London was the world's most populous city from around 1831 to 1925.[50] London contains four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and the historic settlement of Greenwich (in which the Royal Observatory, Greenwich defines the Prime Meridian, 0° longitude, and GMT).[51] Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square and The Shard. London is home to numerous museums, galleries, libraries, sporting events and other cultural institutions, including the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library and West End theatres.[52] The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Roman London 2.3 Anglo-Saxon London (and Viking period) 2.4 Middle Ages 2.5 Early modern 2.6 Late modern and contemporary 3 Administration 3.1 Local government 3.2 National government 3.3 Policing and crime 4 Geography 4.1 Scope 4.2 Status 4.3 Topography 4.4 Climate 4.5 Districts 4.6 Architecture 4.7 Cityscape 4.8 Natural history 5 Demography 5.1 Ethnic groups 5.2 Religion 5.3 Accent 6 Economy 6.1 The City of London 6.2 Media and technology 6.3 Tourism 7 Transport 7.1 Aviation 7.2 Rail 7.3 Buses and trams 7.4 Cable car 7.5 Cycling 7.6 Port and river boats 7.7 Roads 8 Education 8.1 Tertiary education 8.2 Primary and secondary education 9 Culture 9.1 Leisure and entertainment 9.2 Literature, film and television 9.3 Museums and art galleries 9.4 Music 10 Notable people 11 Recreation 11.1 Parks and open spaces 11.2 Walking 12 Sport 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Bibliography 16 External links Etymology Main article: Etymology of London The city's name may derive from the River Thames. The etymology of London is uncertain.[53] It is an ancient name, attested already in the first century AD, usually in the Latinised form Londinium;[53] for example, handwritten Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio ("in London").[54] Over the years, the name has attracted many mythicising explanations. The earliest attested appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, written around 1136.[53] This had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud.[55] Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources Latin (usually Londinium), Old English (usually Lunden), and Welsh (usually Llundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as *[Londonjon] or something similar. This was adapted into Latin as Londinium and borrowed into West Germanic, the ancestor-language of English, before English had become widely spoken in what later became England.[56] The etymology and original meaning of the Common Brythonic form is much debated. A prominent explanation was Richard Coates's 1998 argument that the name derived from pre-Celtic Old European *(p)lowonida, meaning "river too wide to ford". Coates suggested that this was a name given to the part of the River Thames which flows through London; from this, the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name, *Lowonidonjon.[57] However, most work has accepted a Celtic origin for the name, and recent studies have favoured an explanation along the lines of a Celtic derivative of an proto-Indo-European root *lendh- ('sink, cause to sink'), combined with the Celtic suffix *-injo- or *-onjo- (used to form place-names). Peter Schrijver has specifically suggested, on these grounds, that the name originally meant 'place that floods (periodically, tidally)'.[58][56] Until 1889, the name "London" officially applied only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and now to Greater London.[59] "London" is sometimes abbreviated as "L'don" or "LDN".[60] History Main articles: History of London and Timeline of London Prehistory Two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area. In 1999, the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore, upstream of Vauxhall Bridge.[61] This bridge either crossed the Thames or reached a now lost island in it. Dendrochronology dated the timbers to ca. 1500 BC.[61] In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to ca. 4500 BC, were found on the Thames foreshore, south of Vauxhall Bridge.[62] The function of the mesolithic structure is not known. Both structures are on the south bank, at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the Thames.[62] Roman London In 1300, the City was still confined within the Roman walls Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans about four years[1] after the invasion of AD 43.[63] This lasted only until around AD 61, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it, burning it to the ground.[64] The next, heavily planned, incarnation of Londinium prospered, and it superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of around 60,000.[65] Anglo-Saxon London (and Viking period) With the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century, London ceased to be a capital, and the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued in the area of St Martin-in-the-Fields until around 450.[66] From around 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city.[67] By about 680, the city had regrown into a major port, although there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.[68] The Lancastrian siege of London in 1471 is attacked by a Yorkist sally The Vikings established Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England; its boundary stretched roughly from London to Chester. It was an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions which was formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that Alfred "refounded" London in 886. Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until about 950, after which activity increased dramatically.[69] By the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe. Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time on, London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital."[70][71] Middle Ages Westminster Abbey, as seen in this painting (by Canaletto, 1749), is a World Heritage Site and one of London's oldest and most important buildings After winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in the newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.[72] William constructed the Tower of London, the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone, in the southeastern corner of the city, to intimidate the native inhabitants.[73] In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.[74][75] In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto accompanied the royal English court as it moved around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place. For most purposes this was Westminster, although the royal treasury, having been moved from Winchester, came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre, and it flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was around 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.[76] Disaster struck in the form of the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population.[77] London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.[78] London was also a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290. Violence against Jews took place in 1190, after it was rumoured that the new King had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.[79] In 1264 during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.[80] Early modern Map of London in 1593. There is only one bridge across the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed. During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism, and much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.[81] In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up its main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called the Stalhof or Steelyard. It existed until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway.[82] Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries, where it was considered indispensable.[83] But the reach of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. Upon the re-opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565, there ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity.[84] The Royal Exchange was founded.[85] Mercantilism grew, and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established, with trade expanding to the New World. London became the principal North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.[81] In the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still very compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605.[86] Vertue's 1738 plan of the Lines of Communication, built during the English Civil War In the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.[87] The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647,[88] and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.[89] London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century,[90] culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.[91] The Great Fire of London destroyed many parts of the city in 1666 The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.[92] Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke[93][94][95] as Surveyor of London.[96] In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral was completed. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream. London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 1700s. In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force.[97] In total, more than 200 offences were punishable by death,[98] including petty theft.[99] Most children born in the city died before reaching their third birthday.[100] View to the Royal Exchange in the City of London in 1886 The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas, with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press. Following the invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies, many financiers relocated to London, especially a large Jewish community, and the first London international issue[clarification needed] was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world leading war fleet[citation needed], acting as a serious deterrent to potential economic adversaries of the United Kingdom. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power[citation needed]. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre[citation needed].[101] In 1888, London became home to a series of murders by a man known only as Jack the Ripper and It has since become one of the world's most famous unsolved mysteries. According to Samuel Johnson: You find no man, at all intellectual, who is willing to leave London. No, Sir, when a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford. — Samuel Johnson, 1777[102] Late modern and contemporary British volunteer recruits in London, August 1914 London was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925.[50] London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics,[103] claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.[104] Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some of the surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of those areas of the counties surrounding the capital. London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War,[105] and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.[106] Immediately after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when London was still recovering from the war.[107] A bombed-out London street during the Blitz of the Second World War From the 1940s onwards, London became home to a large number of immigrants, primarily from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,[108] making London one of the most diverse cities worldwide. In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank.[109] The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the "pea soup fogs" for which London had been notorious.[110] Primarily starting in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London subculture[111] associated with the King's Road, Chelsea[112] and Carnaby Street.[113] The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era.[114] In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created.[115] During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional IRA.[116] Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot.[117] Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.[118] The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury,[citation needed] with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was borne out of London's ever-increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s.[119] The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.[120] From the 1970s, London became a common target of IRA terrorist attacks for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing in 1973.[121][122] Tower Bridge at the 2012 Summer Olympics The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, which left London without a central administration until 2000 when London-wide government was restored, with the creation of the Greater London Authority.[123] To celebrate the start of the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed.[124] On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, making London the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times.[125] On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.[126] In 2008, London named alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, being hailed as the world's three most influential global cities.[127] In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, the highest level since 1939.[128] During the Brexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but a majority of London constituencies voted to remain in the EU.[129] Suicides among youngsters between 10 and 19 years old rose by 107% from 2013 to 2016. Experts feel this is due to excessive pressure in youngsters' environment and youngstersd in deprived areas feel they have no future in terms of jobs or education. Mental health services for young people who need them are inadequate.[130] People should not generalize, people from a range of backgrounds can feel under pressure and suicidal for a range of reasons.[131] Administration London City hall London at dawn (cropped).jpg This article is part of a series on the politics and government of London Greater London Authority[show] London Councils[show] London in the UK and EU[show] Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom.svg British politics portal vte Local government Main articles: Local government in London, History of local government in London, and List of heads of London government The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.[132] The GLA consists of two elected components: the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Southwark; the mayor is Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital.[133][134] The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.[135] The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation.[136] They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).[137] The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London. It is run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority and is the third largest fire service in the world.[138] National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world.[139] The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames,[140][141] which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea.[142] National government 10 Downing Street, official residence of the Prime Minister London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street, are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall.[143] The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself, and not to Westminster, by John Bright)[144] because it has been a model for many other parliamentary systems.[144] There are 73 Members of Parliament (MPs) from London, elected from local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament. As of May 2015, 49 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, and three are Liberal Democrat.[145] The UK government ministerial post of Minister for London was created in 1994 and currently occupied by Jo Johnson.[146] Policing and crime Main article: Crime in London Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police Service, overseen by the Mayor through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC).[147][148] The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police.[149] The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services.[150] A fourth police force in London, the Ministry of Defence Police, do not generally become involved with policing the general public. Crime rates vary widely by area, ranging from parts with serious issues to parts considered very safe. Today crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority[151] and Ward level.[152] In 2015 there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.[153] The Metropolitan Police have made detailed crime figures, broken down by category at borough and ward level, available on their website since 2000.[154] Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There have been 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to the London police likely contributed to this though other factors are also involved.[155] Geography Main article: Geography of London Scope Satellite view of inner London (2010) London, also referred to as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top-level subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis.[note 5] The small ancient City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs, causing "London" to be defined in a number of ways for different purposes.[156] Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, within which 'LONDON' forms part of postal addresses.[157][158] The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some places just outside are included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.[159] Outward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt,[160] although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt.[161] Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London.[162] The city is split by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area in its interior. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are about 51°30′26″N 00°07′39″W.[163] However the geographical centre of London, on one definition, is in the London Borough of Lambeth, just 0.1 miles to the northeast of Lambeth North tube station.[164] Status Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies.[165] The area of Greater London has incorporated areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.[166] London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed officially—by statute or in written form.[note 6] Its position was formed through constitutional convention, making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.[170] More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London.[14] Topography London from Primrose Hill Greater London encompasses a total area of 1,583 square kilometres (611 sq mi), an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 4,542 inhabitants per square kilometre (11,760/sq mi). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 8,382 square kilometres (3,236 sq mi) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 1,510 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,900/sq mi).[171] Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.[172] Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.[173] The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound.[174] In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.[175] Climate Main article: Climate of London Average summertime day temperatures range between 20 and 26 °C (68 and 79 °F). Temperatures as high as 38 °C (100 °F) were recorded in 2003. London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb ), similar to all of southern England. Despite its reputation as being a rainy city, London receives less precipitation in a year than Rome, Bordeaux, Lisbon, Naples, Sydney and New York City.[176][177][178][179][180][181] Temperature extremes for all sites in the London area range from 38.1 °C (100.6 °F) at Kew during August 2003[182] down to −16.1 °C (3.0 °F) at Northolt during January 1962.[183] Summers are generally warm. London's average July high is 24 °C (74 °F). On average London will see 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) each year, and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F) every year. During the 2003 European heat wave there were 14 consecutive days above 30 °C (86.0 °F) and 2 consecutive days where temperatures reached 38 °C (100 °F), leading to hundreds of heat related deaths.[184] Winters are generally cool, cloudy and damp with little temperature variation. Snowfall occurs occasionally and can cause travel disruption when this happens. Snowfall is more common in outer London. Spring and autumn are mixed seasons and can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect,[185] making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. The effect of this can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow, 15 miles (24 km) west of London, with the London Weather Centre, in the city centre.[186] Climate data for London (LHR), elevation: 25 m or 82 ft, 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1948–present Climate data for London Weather Centre, 2001–2014 normals Districts Main articles: List of districts of London and London boroughs London's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names, such as Bloomsbury, Mayfair, Wembley and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.[192][193] The City of London is the main financial district,[194] and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east. The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.[195] West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.[196] The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.[197][198] The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.[199] The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.[199] Architecture Main articles: Architecture of London, List of tallest buildings and structures in London, and List of demolished buildings and structures in London Aerial view of the Tower of London, a historic medieval castle London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace, England's oldest surviving Tudor palace, built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey c.1515.[200] 17th-century churches by Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate form part of the varied architectural heritage. 30 St Mary Axe, also known as "the Gherkin", towers over St Andrew Undershaft. Modern architecture juxtaposed by historic architecture is seen often in London Trafalgar Square and its fountains, with Nelson's Column on the right The disused – but soon to be rejuvenated – 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington.[201] The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London. The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings.[202] In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings. Nevertheless, there are a number of very tall skyscrapers in central London (see Tall buildings in London), including the 95-storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the European Union. Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape[203] and the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O2 Arena. Cityscape View of the Houses of Parliament and Elizabeth Tower on the right foreground, the London Eye on the left foreground and The Shard with Canary Wharf in the background; as of September 2014 View of the Tower Bridge and The Shard in April 2017 Supermoon over the City of London viewed from Tate Modern in January 2018 View from the hill of the Royal Greenwich Observatory and Canary Wharf in the background in October 2016 Natural history The London Natural History Society suggest that London is "one of the World's Greenest Cities" with more than 40 percent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish.[204] They also state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two National Nature Reserves and 76 Local Nature Reserves.[205] Amphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London.[206] Fox on Ayres Street, Southwark, South London Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (2.6 square kilometres) of London. These urban foxes are noticeably bolder than their country cousins, sharing the pavement with pedestrians and raising cubs in people's backyards. Foxes have even sneaked into the Houses of Parliament, where one was found asleep on a filing cabinet. Another broke into the grounds of Buckingham Palace, reportedly killing some of Queen Elizabeth II's prized pink flamingos. Generally, however, foxes and city folk appear to get along. A survey in 2001 by the London-based Mammal Society found that 80 percent of 3,779 respondents who volunteered to keep a diary of garden mammal visits liked having them around. This sample cannot be taken to represent Londoners as a whole.[207][208] Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehogs, rats, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and squirrels,[209] In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found including hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to fox, squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.[210] Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, nathusius and common pipistrelles, noctule, serotine, barbastelle, daubenton's, brown Long-eared, natterer's and leisler's.[211] Among the strange sights seen in London have been a whale in the Thames,[212] while the BBC Two programme "Natural World: Unnatural History of London" shows pigeons using the London Underground to get around the city, a seal that takes fish from fishmongers outside Billingsgate Fish Market, and foxes that will "sit" if given sausages.[213] Herds of red and fallow deer also roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.[214] Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer, which escaped from deer parks at the turn of the twentieth century, are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces.[215][216] Demography Main article: Demography of London 2011 United Kingdom Census[217] Country of birth Population United Kingdom United Kingdom 5,175,677 India India 262,247 Poland Poland 158,300 Republic of Ireland Ireland 129,807 Nigeria Nigeria 114,718 Pakistan Pakistan 112,457 Bangladesh Bangladesh 109,948 Jamaica Jamaica 87,467 Sri Lanka Sri Lanka 84,542 France France 66,654 London maps showing the percentage distribution of selected races according to the 2011 Census White White Asian Asian Black Black The 2011 census recorded that 2,998,264 people or 36.7% of London's population are foreign-born making London the city with the second largest immigrant population, behind New York City, in terms of absolute numbers. About 69% of children born in London in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad.[218] The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of London residents. Note that some of the German-born population, in 18th position, are British citizens from birth born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany.[219] With increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the most populous city in the world. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939 immediately before the outbreak of the Second World War, but had declined to 7,192,091 at the 2001 Census. However, the population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses, to reach 8,173,941 in the latter enumeration.[220] However, London's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to 9,787,426 people in 2011,[47] while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition used.[221][222] According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe. During the period 1991–2001 a net 726,000 immigrants arrived in London.[223] The region covers an area of 1,579 square kilometres (610 sq mi). The population density is 5,177 inhabitants per square kilometre (13,410/sq mi),[224] more than ten times that of any other British region.[225] In terms of population, London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region in the world. As of 2014, London has the largest number of billionaires (British Pound Sterling) in the world, with 72 residing in the city.[226] London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow.[227] Ethnic groups Main article: Ethnic groups in London Ethnic groups in the 2011 census [228] White British (44.9%) Other White (14.9%) Asian (18.4%) Black (13.3%) Arab (1.3%) Mixed (5%) Other (2.2%) According to the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2011 Census estimates, 59.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were White, with 44.9 per cent White British, 2.2 per cent White Irish, 0.1 per cent gypsy/Irish traveller and 12.1 per cent classified as Other White. 20.9 per cent of Londoners are of Asian and mixed-Asian descent. 19.7 per cent are of full Asian descent, with those of mixed-Asian heritage comprising 1.2 of the population. Indians account for 6.6 per cent of the population, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 2.7 per cent each. Chinese peoples account for 1.5 per cent of the population, with Arabs comprising 1.3 per cent. A further 4.9 per cent are classified as "Other Asian". 15.6 per cent of London's population are of Black and mixed-Black descent. 13.3 per cent are of full Black descent, with those of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.3 per cent. Black Africans account for 7.0 per cent of London's population, with 4.2 per cent as Black Caribbean and 2.1 per cent as "Other Black". 5.0 per cent are of mixed race. Across London, Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to four in state schools.[229] Altogether at the 2011 census, of London's 1,624,768 population aged 0 to 15, 46.4 per cent were White, 19.8 per cent were Asian, 19 per cent were Black, 10.8 per cent were Mixed and 4 per cent represented another ethnic group.[230] In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities with a population of more than 10,000.[231] Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, in 2010, London's foreign-born population was 2,650,000 (33 per cent), up from 1,630,000 in 1997. The 2011 census showed that 36.7 per cent of Greater London's population were born outside the UK.[232] A portion of the German-born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany.[233] Estimates produced by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign-born groups living in London in the period July 2009 to June 2010 were those born in India, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria.[234] Religion Main article: Religion in London Religion in London (2011 census)[235] Religion Percent(%) Christian   48.4% No religion   20.7% Muslim   12.4% Undeclared   8.5% Hindu   5.0% Jewish   1.8% Sikh   1.5% Buddhist   1.0% Other   0.6% According to the 2011 Census, the largest religious groupings are Christians (48.4 per cent), followed by those of no religion (20.7 per cent), Muslims (12.4 per cent), no response (8.5 per cent), Hindus (5.0 per cent), Jews (1.8 per cent), Sikhs (1.5 per cent), Buddhists (1.0 per cent) and other (0.6 per cent). London has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres,[236] while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth.[237] St Paul's Cathedral Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey.[238] The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, which is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales.[239] Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is very low within the Anglican denomination. Church attendance continues on a long, slow, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.[240] London is also home to sizeable Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, and Jewish communities. Notable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets, London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park[241] and the Baitul Futuh Mosque of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Following the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy Hindus and Middle-Eastern Muslims have based themselves around Mayfair and Knightsbridge in West London.[242][243][244] There are large Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham.[245] Large Hindu communities are in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter of which is home to Europe's largest Hindu temple, Neasden Temple.[246] London is also home to 42 Hindu temples. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.[247] The majority of British Jews live in London, with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon and Edgware in North London. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London's historic Sephardic Jewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe which has held regular services continuously for over 300 years. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe, overtaking Ilford synagogue (also in London) in 1998.[248] The community set up the London Jewish Forum in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.[249] Accent There are many accents traditionally associated with London. The most well known of the London accents long ago acquired the Cockney label from London's East End, which is heard both in London itself, and across the wider South East England region more generally.[250] The accent of a 21st-century Londoner varies widely; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under-30s however is some fusion of Cockney with a whole array of ethnic accents, in particular Caribbean, which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English (MLE).[251] The other widely heard and spoken accent is RP (Received Pronunciation) in various forms, which can often be heard in the media and many of other traditional professions and beyond, although this accent is not limited to London and South East England, and can also be heard selectively throughout the whole UK amongst certain social groupings. Since the turn of the century the Cockney dialect is less common in the East End and has 'migrated' east to Havering and the county of Essex.[252][253] Economy Main article: Economy of London The City of London, one of the largest financial centres in the world[254] London produced in 2015 about £378 billion (€530 billion or $600 billion), over 22% of UK GDP,[255] while the economy of the London metropolitan area—the largest in Europe—generates about 30 per cent of the UK's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion in 2005).[256] London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2 of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world.[257][258] London is the world's most expensive office market for the last three years according to world property journal (2015) report.[259] As of 2015 the residential property in London is worth $2.2 trillion – same value as that of Brazil annual GDP.[260] The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics.[261] On average the price per square metre in central London is €24,252 (April 2014). This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities; Berlin €3,306, Rome €6,188 and Paris €11,229.[262] The City of London The London Stock Exchange at Paternoster Square in the City of London. Temple Bar can be seen at bottom left. London finance industry is based in the City of London and Canary Wharf, the two major Central Business Districts in London. London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance.[263][264] London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. For many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring), this was only time to move to London. The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.[265] This unique concentration of talents accelerated the transition from the Commercial Revolution to the Industrial Revolution. By the end of the 19th century, Britain was the wealthiest of all nations, and London a leading financial centre. Still, as of 2016 London tops the world rankings on the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI),[266] and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.[267] London's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. It is also the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 percent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.[268] Over 85 percent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the financial crisis of 2007–2008. However, by 2010 the City has recovered; put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.[269] Along with professional services headquarters, the City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London insurance market. Over half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London.[270] Media and technology Media companies are concentrated in London and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.[271] The BBC is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the City. Many national newspapers are edited in London. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion.[272] The Port of London is the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year.[273] A growing number of technology companies are based in London notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In April 2014, the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD.[274] In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future [275] in the 2014/15 list by FDi Magazine.[276] The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN[277] and UK Power Networks.[278] Tourism Main article: Tourism in London The British Museum London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits.[279][280] It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.[281] Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing the equivalent of 350,000 full-time workers in 2003,[282] and the city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK.[283] As of 2016 London is the world top city destination as ranked by TripAdvisor users.[284] In 2015 the top most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London. The top 10 most visited attractions were: (with visits per venue) [285] The Natural History Museum The British Museum: 6,820,686 The National Gallery: 5,908,254 The Natural History Museum (South Kensington): 5,284,023 The Southbank Centre: 5,102,883 Tate Modern: 4,712,581 The Victoria and Albert Museum (South Kensington): 3,432,325 The Science Museum: 3,356,212 Somerset House: 3,235,104 The Tower of London: 2,785,249 The National Portrait Gallery: 2,145,486 The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stood at 138,769, and is expected to grow over the years.[286] Transport Main articles: Transport in London and Infrastructure in London Two black London taxis, also known as a hackney carriage Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London,[287] however the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer distance rail network that enters London. In 2007 he assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TFL). The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.[288] Aviation Main article: Airports of London London Heathrow Airport is the busiest airport in Europe as well as the second busiest in the world for international passenger traffic. (Terminal 5C is pictured) London is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the word London in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally, various other airports also serve London, catering primarily to general aviation flights. London Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West London, was for many years the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways.[289] In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened.[290] In 2014, Dubai gained from Heathrow the leading position in terms of international passenger traffic.[291] London Gatwick Airport,[292] south of London in West Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport[293] and is the main base of easyJet,[294] the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.[295] London Stansted Airport,[296] north-east of London in Essex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport[297] and is the main base of Ryanair,[298] the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.[299] London Luton Airport, to the north of London in Bedfordshire, is used by several budget airlines for short-haul flights.[300] London City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, in Newham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic.[301] London Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines.[302] In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.[303] Rail Underground and DLR The London Underground is the world's oldest and third-longest rapid transit system The London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube, is the oldest[304] and third longest[305] metro system in the world. The system serves 270 stations[306] and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway.[307] It dates from 1863.[308] Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.[309] An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics.[310] The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham. Suburban A Thameslink train at Blackfriars There are more than 360 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports.[311] London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers – Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year.[312][313] Clapham Junction is the busiest station in Europe by the number of trains passing. With the need for more rail capacity in London, Crossrail is due to open in 2018. It will be a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport.[314] It is Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.[315][316] Inter-city and international St Pancras International is the main terminal for high speed Eurostar and HS1 services, as well as commuter suburban Thameslink and inter-city East Midlands Trains services London is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 percent of rail journeys starting or ending in London.[317] Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, linking London with the rest of Britain including Birmingham, Brighton, Reading, Bristol, Cardiff, Derby, Exeter, Sheffield, Southampton, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Cambridge, Newcastle upon Tyne, Edinburgh and Glasgow. Some international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains, such as the Admiraal de Ruijter to Amsterdam and the Night Ferry to Paris and Brussels. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and other European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel.[318] The first high-speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London.[319] There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire. Freight Although rail freight levels are far down compared to their height, significant quantities of cargo are also carried into and out of London by rail; chiefly building materials and landfill waste.[320] As a major hub of the British railway network, London's tracks also carry large amounts of freight for the other regions, such as container freight from the Channel Tunnel and English Channel ports, and nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield.[320] Buses and trams The red double decker bus is an iconic symbol of London London's bus network is one of the largest in the world, running 24 hours a day, with about 8,500 buses, more than 700 bus routes and around 19,500 bus stops.[321] In 2013, the network had more than 2 billion commuter trips per annum, more than the Underground.[321] Around £850 million is taken in revenue each year. London has the largest wheelchair accessible network in the world[322] and, from the 3rd quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced. The distinctive red double-decker buses are an internationally recognised trademark of London transport along with black cabs and the Tube.[323][324] London has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink, centred on Croydon in South London. The network has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013.[325] Since June 2008 Transport for London has completely owned Tramlink, and it plans to spend £54m by 2015 on maintenance, renewals, upgrades and capacity enhancements.[326] Cable car London's first and only cable car, known as the Emirates Air Line, opened in June 2012. Crossing the River Thames, linking Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks in the east of the city, the cable car is integrated with London's Oyster Card ticketing system, although special fares are charged. Costing £60 million to build, it carries over 3,500 passengers every day, although this is very much lower than its capacity. Similar to the Santander Cycles bike hire scheme, the cable car is sponsored in a 10-year deal by the airline Emirates. Cycling Main article: Cycling in London Santander Cycle Hire near Victoria in Central London Segregated cycle lanes are being implemented across London. Cycle Superhighway 2 in Stratford In the whole Greater London Area, around 650,000 people use a bike everyday.[327] But out of a total population of around 8.8 million,[328] this means that just around 7% of Greater London's population use a bike on an average day. This is a small proportion, when compared to many other cities in the world [329] A reason may well be the poor investments for cycling in the UK. In England, cycling investment equates to around £1.40 per person and year, which can be compared to £22 in the Netherlands.[330] Cycling is nevertheless becoming increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a cycle hire scheme in July 2010 has been successful and generally well received. The London Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision.[331] There are many cycle routes in London, including several Cycle Superhighways. Port and river boats From being the largest port in the world, the Port of London is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year.[273] Most of this actually passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London. London has frequent river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers. These run up to every 20 minutes between Embankment Pier and North Greenwich Pier. The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year,[332] is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads. Other operators run both commuter and tourist boat services in London. Roads The M4 near Slough. The M4 runs between London and South Wales Although the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (in the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, outside the built-up area) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 mi (188 km) long.[333] The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh. London is notorious for its traffic congestion, with the average speed of a car in the rush hour being 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h).[334] In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay £10 per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.[335][336] Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.[337] London government initially expected the Congestion Charge Zone to increase daily peak period Underground and bus users by 20,000 people, reduce road traffic by 10 to 15 per cent, increase traffic speeds by 10 to 15 per cent, and reduce queues by 20 to 30 per cent.[338] Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars – a 35-per-cent reduction of vehicles driven per day.[339] Education Main article: Education in London Tertiary education Imperial College London, a world leading research university located in South Kensington London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.[42] According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world[340][341] and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.[342] A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London as the global capital of higher education.[343] A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2014/15 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College London is ranked joint 2nd in the world, University College London (UCL) is ranked 5th, and King's College London (KCL) is ranked 16th.[344] The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[345] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second best in the world by the Financial Times.[346] With 120,000 students in London,[347] the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK.[348] It includes five multi-faculty universities – City, King's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies.[349] Members of the University of London have their own admissions procedures, and some award their own degrees. A number of universities in London are outside the University of London system, including Brunel University, Imperial College London, Kingston University, London Metropolitan University,[350] University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe).[351] In addition there are three international universities in London – Regent's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University. The front façade of the Royal College of Music London is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George's, University of London – and has a large number of affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eight academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare, King's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe).[352] There are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School, the London Business School and the UCL School of Management. London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the Academy of Live and Recorded Arts, Central School of Ballet, LAMDA, London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, RADA, Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art, the Royal College of Music and Trinity Laban. King's College London, established by Royal Charter having been founded by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington in 1829, is one of the founding colleges of the University of London Primary and secondary education The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include City and Islington College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, Tower Hamlets College, Bethnal Green Academy and Newham College. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow, St Paul's School, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School. Culture Main article: Culture of London Leisure and entertainment See also: List of annual events in London and West End theatre Piccadilly Circus Leisure is a major part of the London economy, with a 2003 report attributing a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London[353] at 25.6 events per 1000 people.[354] Globally, the city is amongst the big four fashion capitals of the world, and according to official statistics, London is the world's third busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city,[355] and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.[356] Harrods in Knightsbridge Within the City of Westminster in London, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements.[357] London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated the West End theatre since the late 20th century.[358] The United Kingdom's Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera, and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre, and the Royal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country.[359] Scene of the annual Notting Hill Carnival, 2014 Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the United Kingdom.[360] Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. Oxford Street is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including the world-famous Selfridges flagship store.[361] Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south-west. London is home to designers Vivienne Westwood, Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris, Milan, and New York City. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese restaurants of Chinatown.[362] Shakespeare's Globe is a modern reconstruction of the Globe Theatre on the south bank of the River Thames There is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at the London Eye; the world's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival, is held on the late August Bank Holiday each year. Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday.[363] Literature, film and television Main articles: London in fiction, London in film, List of television shows set in London, and London Television Archive Sherlock Holmes Museum in Baker Street, bearing the number 221B London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London – specifically, from the Tabard inn, Southwark. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play The Alchemist, was set in the city.[364] A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague.[364] The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire, Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London, and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century.[364] Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens' novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories.[364] Also of significance is Letitia Elizabeth Landon's Calendar of the London Seasons (1834). Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a "biography" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography. Wikisource has original text related to this article: 'Calendar of the London Seasons', by L. E. L. Keats House, where Keats wrote his Ode to a Nightingale. The village of Hampstead has historically been a literary centre in London. London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London include Twickenham, Ealing, Shepperton, Pinewood, Elstree and Borehamwood,[365] and a special effects and post-production community centred in Soho. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London.[366] London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist (1948), Scrooge (1951), Peter Pan (1953), The 101 Dalmatians (1961), My Fair Lady (1964), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), The Long Good Friday (1980), Notting Hill (1999), Love Actually (2003), V For Vendetta (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber Of Fleet Street (2008) and The King's Speech (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include; Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Helen Mirren, Gary Oldman, Christopher Nolan, Jude Law, Benedict Cumberbatch, Tom Hardy, Keira Knightley and Daniel Day-Lewis. As of 2008, the British Academy Film Awards have taken place at the Royal Opera House. London is a major centre for television production, with studios including BBC Television Centre, The Fountain Studios and The London Studios. Many television programmes have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera EastEnders, broadcast by the BBC since 1985. Museums and art galleries The British Museum London is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753. Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square. In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as "Albertopolis", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum (for the applied arts), the Natural History Museum, and the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.[367] The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art; in 2000, this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station. Music The Royal Albert Hall hosts concerts and musical events London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as Universal Music Group International and Warner Music Group, as well as countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms).[359] London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum.[359] The UK's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are at the cathedrals and major churches. Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban. Abbey Road Studios, 3 Abbey Road, St John's Wood, City of Westminster London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest arena the O2 arena[368] and other large arenas such as Earls Court, Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd's Bush Empire.[359] Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, South West Four, Lovebox, and Hyde Park's British Summer Time are all held in London.[369] The city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, Cliff Richard, David Bowie, Queen, The Kinks, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Eric Clapton, Led Zeppelin, The Small Faces, Iron Maiden, Fleetwood Mac, Elvis Costello, Cat Stevens, The Police, The Cure, Madness, The Jam, Ultravox, Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Adam Ant, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.[370] London was instrumental in the development of punk music,[371] with figures such as the Sex Pistols, The Clash,[370] and Vivienne Westwood all based in the city. More recent artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael's Wham!, Kate Bush, Seal, the Pet Shop Boys, Bananarama, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, McFly, The Prodigy, Gorillaz, Bloc Party, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Paloma Faith, Ellie Goulding, One Direction and Florence and the Machine.[372][373][374] London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of hip hop and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of local urban contemporary music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom.[citation needed] Notable people Main article: List of people from London Recreation Parks and open spaces Main articles: Parks and open spaces in London and Royal Parks of London See also: List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Greater London and List of Local Nature Reserves in Greater London Hyde Park Aerial view of Hyde Park Lake with London Eye in the background St. James's Park lake with the London Eye in the distance A 2013 report by the City of London Corporation said that London is the "greenest city" in Europe with 35,000 acres of public parks, woodlands and gardens.[375] The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west, and Regent's Park to the north.[376] Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum.[377][378] Primrose Hill, immediately to the north of Regent's Park, at 256 feet (78 m)[379] is a popular spot from which to view the city skyline. Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, Green Park and St. James's Park.[380] A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including Hampstead Heath and the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south-east[381] and Bushy Park and Richmond Park (the largest) to the south-west,[382][383] Hampton Court Park is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces, unlike the eight Royal Parks.[384] Close to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.[385] There are also numerous parks administered by London's borough Councils, including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 320-hectare (790-acre) Hampstead Heath of North London,[386] and Epping Forest, which covers 2,476 hectares (6,118 acres)[387] in the east. Both are controlled by the City of London Corporation.[388][389] Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, a former stately home and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks.[390] Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.[391] Walking Walking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the eight Royal Parks, canals and disused railway tracks.[392] Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the Thames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is within Greater London, and The Wandle Trail; this runs 12 miles (19 km) through South London along the River Wandle, a tributary of the River Thames.[393] Other long distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, London Outer Orbital Path ("Loop"), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, and the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk.[394] Sport Main article: Sport in London Wembley Stadium, home of the England football team, has a 90,000 capacity. It is the UK's biggest stadium. London has hosted the Summer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, and 2012.[395][396] making it the first city to host the modern Games three times.[43] The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934.[397] In 2017, London hosted the World Championships in Athletics for the first time.[398] London's most popular sport is football and it has twelve Football League clubs, including five in the Premier League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United.[399] Other professional teams in London are Fulham, Queens Park Rangers, Brentford, Millwall, Charlton Athletic, AFC Wimbledon and Barnet. Twickenham, home of the England rugby union team, has an 82,000 capacity, the world's largest rugby union stadium From 1924, the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English national football team. It hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final, with England defeating West Germany, and served as the venue for the FA Cup Final as well as rugby league's Challenge Cup final.[400] The new Wembley Stadium serves exactly the same purposes and has a capacity of 90,000.[401] Two Aviva Premiership rugby union teams are based in London, Saracens and Harlequins.[402] London Scottish, London Welsh and London Irish play in the RFU Championship club and other rugby union clubs in the city include Richmond F.C., Rosslyn Park F.C., Westcombe Park R.F.C. and Blackheath F.C.. Twickenham Stadium in south-west London is the national rugby union stadium, and has a capacity of 82,000 now that the new south stand has been completed.[403] Centre Court at Wimbledon. First played in 1877, the Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world.[404] While rugby league is more popular in the north of England, there are two professional rugby league clubs in London – the second tier Championship One team, the London Broncos, who play at the Trailfinders Sports Ground in West Ealing, and the third tier League 1 team, the London Skolars from Wood Green, Haringey; in addition, Hemel Stags from Hemel Hempstead north of London also play in League 1. One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon.[405] Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.[406][407][408] London has two Test cricket grounds, Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C.) in St John's Wood[409] and the Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C.) in Kennington.[410] Lord's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup. Other key events are the annual mass-participation London Marathon, in which some 35,000 runners attempt a 26.2 miles (42.2 km) course around the city,[411] and the University Boat Race on the River Thames from Putney to Mortlake.[412] See also icon London portal flag England portal flag United Kingdom portal flag European Union portal Europe portal Outline of London Outline of England Notes See also: Independent city § National capitals. The London Mayor is not to be confused with the Lord Mayor of London who heads the City of London Corporation, which administers the City of London. Rankings of cities by metropolitan area GDP can vary as a result of differences in the definition of the boundaries and population sizes of the areas compared, exchange rate fluctuations and the method used to calculate output. London and Paris are of broadly similar size in terms of total economic output which can result in third party sources varying as to which is the fifth-largest city GDP in the world. A report by the McKinsey Global Institute published in 2012 estimated that London had a city GDP of US$751.8 billion in 2010, compared to US$764.2 billion for Paris, making them respectively the sixth- and fifth-largest in the world. A report by PricewaterhouseCoopers published in November 2009 estimated that London had a city GDP measured in purchasing power parity of US$565 billion in 2008, compared to US$564 billion for Paris, making them respectively the fifth- and sixth-largest in the world. The McKinsey Global Institute study used a metropolitan area with a population of 14.9 million for London compared to 11.8 million for Paris, whilst the PricewaterhouseCoopers study used a metropolitan area with a population of 8.59 million for London compared to 9.92 million for Paris. According to the European Statistical Agency (Eurostat), London has the largest Larger Urban Zone in the EU. Eurostat uses the sum of the populations of the contiguous urban core and the surrounding commuting zone as its definition. London is not a city in the sense that the word applies in the United Kingdom, that of having city status granted by the Crown. According to the Collins English Dictionary definition of 'the seat of government',[167] London is not the capital of England, as England does not have its own government. According to the Oxford English Reference Dictionary definition of 'the most important town'[168] and many other authorities.[169] References Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York. "London, United Kingdom Forecast : Weather Underground (weather and elevation at Bloomsbury)" (online). The Weather Underground, Inc. Retrieved 22 August 2014. "Metropolitan Area Populations". Eurostat. 16 November 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017. "Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland". ONS. 22 June 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017. "Regional gross value added (income approach) - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. "XE: Convert GBP/USD. United Kingdom Pound to United States Dollar". www.xe.com. "XE: Convert GBP/USD. United Kingdom Pound to United States Dollar". www.xe.com. "London". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 23 September 2014. "The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. 1 February 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2014. "Roman London". Museum of London. n.d. Archived from the original on 22 March 2008. Joshua Fowler (5 July 2013). "London Government Act: Essex, Kent, Surrey and Middlesex 50 years on". BBC News. Laurence Cawley (1 August 2013). "The big debate: Is Bromley in London or Kent?". Bromley Times. Joanna Till (14 February 2012). "Croydon, London or Croydon, Surrey?". Croydon Advertiser. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. "Government Offices for the English Regions, Fact Files: London". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 24 January 2008. Retrieved 4 May 2008. Elcock, Howard (1994). Local Government: Policy and Management in Local Authorities. London: Routledge. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-415-10167-7. Jones, Bill; Kavanagh, Dennis; Moran, Michael; Norton, Philip (2007). Politics UK. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4058-2411-8. Lieutenancies Act 1997 Adewunmi, Bim (10 March 2013). "London: the everything capital of the world". The Guardian. London. "What's The Capital Of The World?". More Intelligent Life. Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2013. "The World's Most Influential Cities 2014". Forbes. Retrieved 2 March 2015. "Global Power City Index 2014". Institute for Urban Strategies – The Mori Memorial Foundation. Retrieved 2 March 2015. Dearden, Lizzie (7 October 2014). "London is 'the most desirable city in the world to work in', study finds". The Independent. London. Retrieved 2 March 2015. "The Global Financial Centers Index measures cities". Alex Tanzi. September 2016. "The Global Financial Centres Index 18" (PDF). Long Finance. September 2015. "Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index 2008" (PDF). Mastercard. "Global Financial Centres Index 18" (PDF). Z/Yen. 2015. "The Most Dynamic Cities of 2025". Foreign Policy. Washington DC. September–October 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2012. "Global city GDP rankings 2008–2025". PricewaterhouseCoopers. Archived from the original on 28 November 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2010. Calder, Simon (22 December 2007). "London, capital of the world". The Independent. London. Teodorczuk, Tom (20 March 2007). "London is the world capital of the 21st century ... says New York". London Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 25 November 2009. "London is world capital of culture says LSE expert" (Press release). London School of Economics. 11 March 2008. Archived from the original on 18 November 2011. "London tops ranking of destination cities". The Independent. London. 1 June 2011. Archived from the original on 3 June 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2012. "Beijing to overtake london as world's largest aviation hub". Centre for Aviation. Retrieved 12 June 2012. "Global Cities Investment Monitor 2017" (PDF). KPMG. Retrieved 5 September 2017. "Global Cities Investment Monitor 2016" (PDF). KPMG. Retrieved 12 September 2016. "Global Investor Intentions Survey 2015". CBRE. Retrieved 27 August 2015. "London Top Target for Global Investors, Secondary Markets Gain Popularity". World Property Journal. Retrieved 27 August 2015. "Global Retail Report 2014". CBRE. Retrieved 27 August 2015. Bourke, Joanna (18 May 2015). "London retains title as world's most international shopping destination". London Evening Standard. Retrieved 27 August 2015. "The Wealth Report 2015". Knight Frank. Retrieved 27 August 2015. Bourke, Joanna (11 March 2015). "NYC Is No Longer the No. 1 City for the Super-Wealthy". Curbed. Retrieved 27 August 2015. "Number of international students in London continues to grow" (Press release). Greater London Authority. 20 August 2008. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. "IOC elects London as the Host City of the Games of the XXX Olympiad in 2012". International Olympic Committee. 6 July 2005. Retrieved 3 June 2006. "Languages spoken in the UK population". National Centre for Language. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008.Additional archives: 13 February 2005. "Largest EU City. Over 7 million residents in 2001". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 26 July 2007. Retrieved 28 June 2008. "Focus on London – Population and Migration | London DataStore". Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 16 October 2010. Retrieved 10 February 2012. "2011 Census – Built-up areas". ONS. Retrieved 29 June 2013. "The London Plan (March 2015)". London.gov.uk. The Greater London Authority. Retrieved 27 January 2017. "A Manifesto for Long Term Growth of the London City Region" (PDF). aecom.com. AECOM. Retrieved 27 January 2017. "London: The greatest city". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2008. "Lists: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". UNESCO. Retrieved 26 November 2008. "West End Must Innovate to Renovate, Says Report". What's On Stage. London. 25 January 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 15 November 2010. Mills 2001, p. 139 "UK's oldest hand-written document 'at Roman London dig'". BBC News. 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016. Ackroyd, Peter (2 December 2001). "London". The New York Times. ISBN 978-0-7011-7279-4. Retrieved 28 October 2008. Theodora Bynon, 'London's Name', Transactions of the Philological Society, 114:3 (2016), 281–97, doi: 10.1111/1467-968X.12064. Coates, Richard (1998). "A new explanation of the name of London". Transactions of the Philological Society. 96 (2): 203–229. doi:10.1111/1467-968X.00027. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Peter Schrijver, Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages, Routledge Studies in Linguistics, 13 (New York: Routledge, 2014), p. 57. Mills 2001, p. 140 "Page Not Found – The National Archives". Archived from the original on 25 September 2017. Denison, Simon (July 1999). "First 'London Bridge' in River Thames at Vauxhall". British Archaeology (46). Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011. Milne, Gustav. "London's Oldest Foreshore Structure!". Frog Blog. Thames Discovery Programme. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011. Perring, Dominic (1991). Roman London. London: Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-203-23133-3. "British History Timeline —Roman Britain". BBC. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2008. Anne Lancashire (2002). London Civic Theatre: City Drama and Pageantry from Roman Times to 1558. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-5216-3278-2. "The last days of Londinium". Museum of London. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009. Retrieved 31 March 2013. "The early years of Lundenwic". The Museum of London. Archived from the original on 10 June 2008. Wheeler, Kip. "Viking Attacks". Retrieved 19 January 2016. Vince, Alan (2001). "London". In Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22492-1. Stenton, Frank (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 538–539. ISBN 978-0-19-280139-5. Blair, John (2001). "Westminster". In Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22492-1. "History – 1066 – King William". BBC. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2008. Tinniswood, Adrian. "A History of British Architecture — White Tower". BBC. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2008. "UK Parliament — Parliament: The building". UK Parliament. 9 November 2007. Archived from the original on 11 March 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Palace of Westminster". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 4 April 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2008. Schofield, John; Vince, Alan (2003). Medieval Towns: The Archaeology of British Towns in Their European Setting. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-8264-6002-8. "Black Death". BBC History. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2008. "Richard II (1367–1400)". BBC. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2008. Jacobs, Joseph (1906). "England". Jewish Encyclopedia. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Robin R. Mundill (2010), The King's Jews, London: Continuum, ISBN 9781847251862, LCCN 2010282921, OCLC 466343661, OL 24816680M; see p88-99 Pevsner, Nikolaus. London I: The Cities of London and Westminster rev. edition, 1962. Introduction p. 48. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Steelyard, Merchants of the". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. J. G. Pounds (1976). "An Historical Geography of Europe 450 B.C.-A.D. 1330, Part 1330". p. 430. CUP Archive Ramsay, George Daniel (1986). The Queen's Merchants and the Revolt of the Netherlands: The End of the Antwerp Mart. Volume 2, pp. 1 and 62–63. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-1849-7 The life and times of Sir Thomas Gresham, founder of the Royal Exchange: including notices of many of his contemporaries. With illustrations, Volume 2, pages 80–81, John William Burgon, E. Wilson, 1839. Durston, Christopher (1993). James I. London: Routledge. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-415-07779-8. David Flintham. Civil War fortifications of London Archived 16 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine., Fortified Places, 13 July 2009 Harrington, Peter (2003). English Civil War Fortifications 1642–51, Volume 9 of Fortress, 9, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-604-6. p. 57 David Flintham. Civil War fortifications of London Archived 16 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine., Fortified Places, 18 August 2008. Citing: The English Civil War – A Contemporary Account, Caliban Books, London, (1996), Vol. 3, p. 33. Whitelocke, in Victor T. C. Smith The Defences of London During the English Civil War, Fort, Volume 25, Fortress Study Group, (1997). p. 79. "A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348–1665". Urban Rim. 4 December 2009. Archived from the original on 4 May 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2010. "Story of the plague". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Pepys, Samuel (2 September 1666) [1893]. Mynors Bright (decipherer); Henry B. Wheatley, eds. The Diary of Samuel Pepys. 45: August/September 1666. ISBN 978-0-520-22167-3. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Schofield, John (17 February 2011). "London After the Great Fire: Civil War and Revolution". BBC History. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2013. "Rebuilding after the fire". Museum of London. Archived from the original on 1 February 2008. The Rebuilding of London After the Great Fire. Thomas Fiddian. 1940. Retrieved 27 April 2008. The curious life of Robert Hooke, the man who measured London by Lisa Jardine "Thief Taker, Constable, Police". Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Jackson, Peter (3 August 2009). "Rough justice – Victorian style". BBC News. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "National Affairs: Capital punishment: a fading practice". Time. New York. 21 March 1960. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "The Foundling Hospital". BBC History. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2011. Coispeau, Olivier (10 August 2016). Finance Masters: A Brief History of International Financial Centers in the Last Millennium. World Scientific. ISBN 9789813108844. "When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life: Samuel Johnson". Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. "Hidden extras: cholera comes to Victorian London". London: The Science Museum. Retrieved 13 December 2011. Brown, Robert W. "London in the Nineteenth Century". University of North Carolina at Pembroke. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2011. Goebel, Stefan; White, Jerry (2016). "London and the First World War". London Journal. 41 (3): 1–20. doi:10.1080/03058034.2016.1216758. "Bomb-Damage Maps Reveal London's World War II Devastation". nationalgeographic.com.au. 18 May 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Ronk, Liz (27 July 2013). "LIFE at the 1948 London Olympics". time.com. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Christopher Hibbert; Ben Weinreb; John Keay; Julia Keay (2010). The London Encyclopaedia (3rd Edition). Pan Macmillan. p. 428. "1951: King George opens Festival of Britain". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 18 June 2017. CORTON, CHRISTINE L. (6 November 2015). "The Return of London's Fog". nytimes.com. NYT. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Brown, Mick (29 May 2012). "The Diamond Decades: The 1960s". telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Robson, David (8 September 2016). "SWINGING SIXTIES: Take a walk down Chelsea's King's Road in the '60s". express.co.uk. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Magical memory tour of London". telegraph.co.uk. 15 July 2007. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Gregory Byrne Bracken (2011). Walking Tour London: Sketches of the city’s architectural treasures... Journey Through London's Urban Landscapes. Marshall Cavendish International. p. 10. Webber, Esther (31 March 2016). "The rise and fall of the GLC". bbc.com/news. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Cutler, David (16 May 2011). "Timeline – Worst IRA bomb attacks on mainland Britain". reuters.com. Retrieved 18 June 2017. John, Cindi (5 April 2006). "The legacy of the Brixton riots". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "London's population hits 8.6m record high". BBC News. 2 February 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2017. Zolfagharifard, Ellie (14 February 2014). "Canary Wharf timeline: from the Thatcher years to Qatari control". Guardian. Retrieved 19 June 2017. Hanlon, Michael (18 February 2014). "The Thames Barrier has saved London – but is it time for TB2?". telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 19 June 2017. "How Britain's history with the IRA made it resilient to attacks". 24 March 2017. "Timeline: London's Explosive History". "1986: Greater London Council abolished". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 20 June 2017. Ijeh, Ike (25 June 2010). "Millennium projects: 10 years of good luck". www.building.co.uk. Retrieved 20 June 2017. "London beats Paris to 2012 Games". BBC Sport. 6 July 2005. Retrieved 28 September 2012. "7 July Bombings: Overview". London: BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 February 2007. Retrieved 28 April 2008. Ben Derudder (2011). International Handbook of Globalization and World Cities. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 422. "Population Growth in London, 1939–2015". London Datastore. Greater London Authority. Archived (PDF) from the original on Feb 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015. "Thousands call on Sadiq Khan to declare London's independence". 24 June 2016. Teenage suicides in London rise by 107% - more than four times national rate, new figures reveal The Independent Warning of pressure on London teenagers as suicide rate soars The Guardian "Who runs London". London Government. Retrieved 29 March 2017. James, William; Piper, Elizabeth (7 May 2016). "Labour's Khan becomes first Muslim mayor of London after bitter campaign". Reuters. Retrieved 19 September 2016. "London Elections 2016: Results". BBC News. Retrieved 7 May 2016. "The London Plan". Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2012. "London Government Directory". London Government. Retrieved 29 March 2017. http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/statistics/pdf/1911067.pdf "Who we are". London Fire Brigade. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2009. "About us". London Ambulance Service NHS Trust. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2009. "Station list". Maritime and Coastguard Agency. 2007. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2009. "Thames lifeboat service launched". BBC News. 2 January 2002. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2009. "Port of London Act 1968" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013. "10 Downing Street — Official Website". Archived from the original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "UK Politics: Talking Politics — The 'Mother of Parliaments'". BBC. 3 June 1998. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "General Election Results 2017". London DataStore. Greater London Authority. 8 June 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2017. Download the spreadsheet and count up Amesbury, Mike (12 January 2018). "Jo Johnson's new jobs show northern transport again taking backseat". the Guardian. "About MOPAC". Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2013. "MPA: Metropolitan Police Authority". Metropolitan Police Authority. 22 May 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2013. "Policing". Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2009. "Areas". British Transport Police. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2009. "Home Office Interactive Crime Atlas". Homeoffice.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "National Policing Improvement Agency: Local Crime Mapping". Archived from the original on 23 October 2009. "London murder rate up 14% over the past year". ITV News. 24 January 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016. "Metropolitan Police Crime Mapping Data Tables". Maps.met.police.uk. Archived from the original on 18 April 2009. Retrieved 13 December 2011. Sadiq Khan holds City Hall summit on how to tackle violent crime The Guardian Beavan, Charles; Bickersteth, Harry (1865). "Reports of Cases in Chancery, Argued and Determined in the Rolls Court". Saunders and Benning. Stationery Office (1980). The Inner London Letter Post. H.M.S.O. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-10-251580-0. Geographers' A-Z Map Company (2008). London Postcode and Administrative Boundaries (6 ed.). Geographers' A-Z Map Company. ISBN 978-1-84348-592-6. "The Essex, Greater London and Hertfordshire (County and London Borough Boundaries) Order". Office of Public Sector Information. 1993. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. Dilys, M Hill (2000). Urban Policy and Politics in Britain. St. Martin's Press. p. 268. ISBN 978-0-312-22745-6. "London in its Regional Setting" (PDF). London Assembly. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. London Government Act 1963. Office of Public Sector Information. ISBN 978-0-16-053895-7. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2008. "London — Features — Where is the Centre of London?". BBC. Archived from the original on 18 January 2010. Retrieved 6 June 2008. M@ (30 April 2014). "Where Is The Centre Of London? An Update". Londonist. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016. "Lieutenancies Act 1997". OPSI. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2008. Barlow, I. M. (1991). Metropolitan Government. Routledge. p. 346. (1994) Collins English Dictionary, Collins Education plc. Oxford English Reference Dictionary, Oxford English. "HC 501 0304.PDF" (PDF). Parliament Publications Schofield, John (June 1999). "British Archaeology" (45). British Archaeology. ISSN 1357-4442. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2008. "Metropolis: 027 London, World Association of the Major Metropolises" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2010. Sheppard, Francis (2000). London: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-19-285369-1. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "Flooding". UK Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 15 February 2006. Retrieved 19 June 2006. ""Sea Levels" – UK Environment Agency". Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 23 May 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. Adam, David (31 March 2009). "Thames Barrier gets extra time as London's main flood defence". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2009. "Climate statistics for Australian locations". bom.gov.au. "Weather Information for Naples". Worldweather.org. 5 October 2006. Retrieved 4 May 2013. The Weather Network 18 November 2011 Prévisions météo de Météo-France – Climat en France 18 November 2011 World Weather Information Service – Toulouse 18 November 2011 Data, US Climate. "Climate New York – New York and Weather averages New York". "August 2003 weather". Weather. 59: 239–246. doi:10.1256/wea.10.04B. Retrieved 18 September 2012. "January 1962 weather". Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 18 September 2012. Johnson, H; Kovats, RS; McGregor, G; Stedman, J; Gibbs, M; Walton6, H (1 July 2005). "The impact of the 2003 heat wave on daily mortality in England and Wales and the use of rapid weekly mortality estimates". Eurosurveillance. 10 (7). "London's Urban Heat Island: A Summary for Decision Makers" (PDF). Greater London Authority. October 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2015. Eden, Philip (9 June 2004). "Ever warmer as temperatures rival France". The Daily Telegraph. London. "London Heathrow Airport". Met Office. Retrieved 17 September 2014. "Heathrow Airport Extreme Values". KNMI. Retrieved 29 November 2015. "Heathrow 1981–2010 mean maximum and minimum values". KNMI. Retrieved 28 December 2017. "London Weather Centre analysis". Weather Online. Retrieved 17 November 2014. "climate: Climate London Weather Centre". Tutiempo. Retrieved 17 November 2014. "London boroughs — London Life, GLA". London Government. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 3 November 2008. Dogan, Mattei; Kasarda, John D. (1988). The Metropolis Era. Sage. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-8039-2603-5. "London as a financial centre". Mayor of London. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. "West End still drawing crowds". BBC News. 22 October 2001. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. Meek, James (17 April 2006). "Super Rich". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2008. "Information on latest house prices in the Royal Borough". Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Rupert Jones (8 August 2014). "Average house prices in London jump 19 percent in a year". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 24 September 2014. Flynn, Emily (6 July 2005). "Tomorrow's East End". Newsweek. New York. Archived from the original on 29 August 2006. Foyle, Jonathan (29 March 2011). "Hampton Court: The Lost Palace". BBC History. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2013. "Paddington Station". Great Buildings. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. Lonsdale, Sarah (27 March 2008). "Eco homes: Wooden it be lovely... ?". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2008. "Inside London's new 'glass egg'". BBC News. 16 July 2002. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "Wildlife in London, England: LNHS Home page". lnhs.org.uk. Archived from the original on 12 February 2007. London Natural History Society. Laurie Tuffrey (27 July 2012). "London's amphibians and reptile populations mapped". The Guardian. London. "The Garden Mammal Survey Report 2001" (PDF). The Mammal Society. The Mammal Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2015. "10,000 Foxes Roam London". James Owen in London for National Geographic News, May 15, 2006 "Mammals". The Royal Parks. Peter Law. "London's first wild otter found". This Is Local London. Archived from the original on 1 April 2010. "Mammals". cityoflondon.gov.uk. Liam O'Brien, (24 March 2013). "Dead whale found floating in the Thames Estuary 'will be examined'". The Independent on Sunday (London). "BBC Nature – A Question of Nature: How hidden is the UK's wild side?". BBC Nature. Rachel Bishop (5 November 2012). "Richmond Park deer cull begins". Wandsworth Guardian. London. Retrieved 9 November 2012. "In pictures: London's urban deer". London Evening Standard. Emma Innes (14 June 2012). "Photographer snaps Muntjac deer in Mill Hill garden". Edgware & Mill Hill Times. London. "A summary of countries of birth in London". Census Update. data.london.gov.uk. 2011: 1. 17 May 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2014. "Most London babies have foreign-born parent". Financial Times. 1 December 2016. Kyambi, Sarah (7 September 2005). Beyond Black and White: Mapping New Immigrant Communities. London: Institute for Public Policy Research. ISBN 1-86030-284-X. "2011 Census. London population". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 27 May 2015 "The Principal Agglomerations of the World". City Population. Archived from the original on 24 July 2010. Retrieved 3 March 2009. "British urban pattern: population data" (PDF). ESPON project 1.4.3 Study on Urban Functions. European Spatial Planning Observation Network. March 2007. p. 119. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2010. Leppard, David (10 April 2005). "Immigration rise increases segregation in British cities". The Times. London. Retrieved 8 August 2009. (subscription required) Metropolis World Association of the Major Metropolises (PDF). ISBN 978-0-7306-2020-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2010. "Population density of London: by London borough, 2006" (PDF). UK Statistics Authority. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 June 2008. "'Rich List' counts more than 100 UK billionaires". BBC News Online. 11 May 2014. Retrieved 11 May 2014. "World's Most Expensive Cities 2004". CNN. 11 June 2004. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 16 August 2007. "2011 Census: Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and Wales". ONS. Retrieved 3 July 2014 Paton, Graeme (1 October 2007). "One fifth of children from ethnic minorities". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 15 June 2009. Retrieved 7 June 2008. ONS. "LC2109EWls – Ethnic group by age". www.nomisweb.co.uk. Retrieved 26 March 2015. Benedictus, Leo (21 January 2005). "Every race, colour, nation and religion on earth". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2008. "Census 2001: London". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2006. Kyambi, Sarah (7 September 2005). Beyond Black and White: Mapping new immigrant communities. Institute for Public Policy Research. ISBN 978-1-86030-284-8. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2007. "Table 1.4: Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign country of birth, July 2009 to June 2010". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011. Figure given is the central estimate. See the source for 95 per cent confidence intervals. "2011 Census, Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and Wales". Ons.gov.uk. 11 December 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2013. "About Saint Paul's Cathedral". Dean and Chapter St Paul's. Archived from the original on 7 April 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Lambeth Palace Library". Lambeth Palace Library. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Westminster Abbey". Dean and Chapter of Westminster. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Westminster Cathedral". Westminster Cathedral. Archived from the original on 27 March 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Church of England Statistics" (PDF). Church of England. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "London Central Mosque Trust Ltd". London Central Mosque Trust Ltd. & The Islamic Cultural Centre. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "sikhchic.com – The Art and Culture of the Diaspora – Sikh-Britons Second Wealthiest: Government Report". sikhchic.com. "Comment: British Sikhs are the best example of cultural integration". politics.co.uk. Bill, Peter (29 May 2008). "The $300 billion Arabs are coming". London Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2013. Census 2001 Key Statistics, Local Authorities in England and Wales Office for National Statistics "Hindu London". BBC London. 6 June 2005. Archived from the original on 18 February 2006. Retrieved 3 June 2006. "£17 m Sikh temple opens". BBC News. 30 March 2003. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2008. "Stanmore". The Jewish Agency for Israel. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2008. Paul, Jonny (10 December 2006). "Livingstone apologizes to UK's Jews". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011. "Cracking Up!". p. 178. Lulu.com Brown, Jonathan (11 April 2006). "Jafaican and Tikkiny drown out the East End's Cockney twang". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2008. Alwakeel, Ramzy. "Forget Tower Hamlets - Romford is new East End, says Cockney language study". Brooke, Mike. "Cockney dialect migrated to Essex, Dr Fox tells East End Cockney Festival". "London tops 2015 global financial centre rankings and knocks New York into second place". Cityam.com. Retrieved 12 November 2015 Office for National Statistics. 2018-06-20. URL:https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/bulletins/regionalgrossvalueaddedincomeapproach/december2016. Accessed: 2018-06-20. (Archived by WebCite® at https://www.webcitation.org/70KECQtTi) "The Economic Positioning of Metropolitan Areas in North Western Europe" (PDF). The Institute for Urban Planning and Development of the Paris Île-de-France Region. December 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 27 August 2008. Lowe, Felix (19 February 2008). "Highgate trumps Chelsea as priciest postcode". The Daily Telegraph. London. "U.K.'s Most Expensive Postcodes". Forbes. 12 December 2007. "Top 10 Most Expensive Office Markets in the World Revealed". Retrieved 27 September 2015. Frater, James. "London homes are worth $2 trillion". CNNMoney. Retrieved 27 September 2015. "City Mayors: UK and European cities compared". citymayors.com. Global Property Guide. "Price per Square Meter United Kingdom – British Cost per Square Meter". Global Property Guide. "After the fall". The Economist. London. 29 November 2007. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2009. "Financial Centres — Magnets for money". The Economist. London. 13 September 2007. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Coispeau, Olivier (10 August 2016). Finance Masters: A Brief History of International Financial Centers in the Last Millennium. World Scientific. ISBN 9789813108844. http://www.longfinance.net/images/gfci/20/GFCI20_26Sep2016.pdf "A.T. Kearney | Global Management Consulting Firm - A.T. Kearney". atkearney.com. Retrieved 2018-06-20. Editorial, Reuters. "London's core role in euros under spotlight after Brexit vote". "The London Banking Center Is Beginning to Feel Like Itself Again". International Herald Tribune. 21 January 2010 – via The New York Times. "London Stock Exchange". London Stock Exchange plc. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "London's Place in the UK Economy, 2005–6" (PDF). Oxford Economic Forecasting on behalf of the Corporation of London. November 2005. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2006. Retrieved 19 June 2006. Potter, Mark (17 February 2011). "London tops world cities spending league". Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011. "ARCHIVED CONTENT] Provisional Port Statistics 2009". Department for Transport – Webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2011. "Availability". mydotlondon.com. "London named as European City of the Future" (Press release). London&Partners. 17 February 2014. "European Cities and Regions of the Future 2014/15". fDiIntelligence.com. London. 17 February 2014. "Gas distributors". Ofgem. Retrieved 19 January 2016. "Electricity distributor". National Grid. Retrieved 19 January 2015. "Mastercard". "London and Partners". "Mastercard" (PDF). "London is the HR centre of opportunity in the UK". Personnel Today. 15 February 2005. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2006. "visitbritain". "London named No.1 city destination on TripAdvisor". BBC News. 21 March 2016. "British Museum tops UK visitor attractions list". 7 March 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2017 – via www.bbc.co.uk. "London and Partners Statistics". "Transport for London". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 18 January 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "How do I find out about transport in London?". Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 19 October 2007. Retrieved 5 June 2008. "BAA Heathrow: Official Website". BAA. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Heathrow Airport Terminal 5". TMC Ltd. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "These are the world's busiest airports". 5 February 2018. "BAA Gatwick: Gatwick Airport". BAA. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Gatwick by Numbers - Gatwick Airport". www.gatwickairport.com. "Where We Are - easyJet CareerseasyJet Careers". careers.easyjet.com. "Airline data annual reports 2017 - UK Civil Aviation Authority". www.caa.co.uk. BAA Stansted : Stansted Airport. BAA. 2008. ISBN 978-0-86039-476-1. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Facts and Figures - Stansted Airport". www.stanstedairport.com. "History of Ryanair - Ryanair's Corporate Website". corporate.ryanair.com. "Domestic bliss". The Economist. London Luton Airport. London Luton Airport. ISBN 978-0-11-510256-1. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "London City Airport — Corporate Information". London City Airport Ltd. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.echo-news.co.uk%2Fnews%2F16234556.Londoners_love_our_airport%2F%3Fref%3Drss&date=2018-05-18 "Airport data 2017 - UK Civil Aviation Authority". www.caa.co.uk. Transport for London. London Underground: History. ISBN 978-0-904711-30-1. Archived from the original on 2 May 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2012. "What is the largest metro system in the world?". City Metric. London. 5 September 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2018. "Key facts". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 29 May 2007. Retrieved 15 October 2009. Schwandl, Robert (2001). London Underground. UrbanRail.net. ISBN 978-3-936573-01-5. Archived from the original on 6 October 2006. Retrieved 24 September 2006. "Oyster card celebrates 150th Tube anniversary". BBC News. 10 December 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2013. "Tube breaks record for passenger numbers" (Press release). Transport for London. 27 December 2007. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011. "The London 2012 legacy". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2013. "First Capital Connect". First Capital Connect. Archived from the original on 1 February 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Rail Station Usage". Office of Rail Regulation. Archived from the original on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2009. "Tube exits". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 22 July 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2009. "Crossrail Regional Map". Crossrail. Retrieved 8 September 2013. "Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled". BBC News. 2 January 2012. Leftly, Mark (29 August 2010). "Crossrail delayed to save £1bn". The Independent on Sunday. London. "Rail". London First. London First. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 5 April 2014. "Eurostar". Eurostar. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "Highspeed". Southeastern. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011. August 2007, Rail Freight Strategy, London Rail "What we do – Buses". Transport for London. Transport for London. Retrieved 5 April 2014. "London's bus improvements get Parliamentary seal of approval". Transport For London. 23 May 2006. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011. "London Black Cabs". London Black Cabs. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Tube". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "What we do – Trams". Transport for London. Transport for London. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 5 April 2014. "Tramlink Factsheet" (PDF). Transport for London. Summer 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2010. Retrieved 19 February 2010. http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-report-9.pdf, p.144 "Greater London (United Kingdom): Boroughs - Population Statistics, Charts and Map". www.citypopulation.de. "The 20 Most Bike-Friendly Cities on the Planet". The Guardian "London Cycling Campaign". Rosanna Downes. 20 November 2006. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. Transport for London: Woolwich Ferry, 50 years on Retrieved 8 September 2013 Highways Agency. 2018-06-25. URL:http://www.highways.gov.uk/our-road-network/our-network/key-roads/m25/. Accessed: 2018-06-25. (Archived by WebCite® at https://www.webcitation.org/70RoYooMF) Mulholland, Hélène (16 March 2009). "Boris Johnson mulls 'intelligent' congestion charge system for London". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2009. "Charging Zone". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2008. "Who pays what". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 8 June 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2008. "Residents". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2008. Santos, Georgina; Button, Kenneth; Noll, Roger G. "London Congestion Charging/Comments." Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs. 15287084 (2008): 177,177–234. Table 3 in Santos, Georgina; Button, Kenneth; Noll, Roger G. "London Congestion Charging/Comments." Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs.15287084 (2008): 177,177–234. "QS World University Rankings® 2015/16". Retrieved 26 September 2015. "Mayor of London says city is 'education capital of the world'". www.londonandpartners.com. Retrieved 26 September 2015. "Capital offer | Times Higher Education". Retrieved 26 September 2015. "Pricewaterhousecoopers" (PDF). Retrieved 26 September 2015. "QS World University Rankings – Overall for 2014". Retrieved 13 November 2014. Hipwell, Deirdre (23 September 2007). "The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2007 – Profile for London School of Economics". The Sunday Times. London. Retrieved 6 June 2008. (subscription required) "FT Global MBA Rankings". Financial Times. London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2010. "About us". University of London. Retrieved 1 December 2014. HESA Statistics: United Kingdom. HESA. Retrieved 6 April 2015 "Colleges and Institutes". University of London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2010. About London Met London Metropolitan University, August 2008 "University of the Arts London". The Guardian. London. 1 May 2008. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2010. Carvel, John (7 August 2008). "NHS hospitals to forge £2bn research link-up with university". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 6 September 2010. "Mayor of London – Spending Time: Londons Leisure Economy". www.london.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 19 December 2003. Retrieved 30 September 2015. Chadha, Aayush. "UK Event Data – In Review". www.tickx.co.uk. Retrieved 11 December 2017. "20 facts about London's culture | London City Hall". www.london.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015. Pickford, James (30 July 2014). "Study puts London ahead of New York as centre for theatre". Financial Times. ISSN 0307-1766. Retrieved 30 September 2015. "Piccadilly Lights". Land Securities. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2008. Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: the new musical The New York Times.. referred to Andrew Lloyd Webber as "the most commercially successful composer in history" "Theatres and concert halls". Your London. Archived from the original on 24 January 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "2001: Public houses". BBC. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2008. "Oxford Street gets its own dedicated local police team". The Londoner. September 2006. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 19 June 2007. "Chinatown — Official website". Chinatown London. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "One Queen, Two Birthdays". Royal Government. Archived from the original on 20 June 2008. Retrieved 27 September 2008. "London in Literature,". Bryn Mawr College. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "Film London – studio contacts". Filmlondon.org.uk. "Working Title Films". Universal Studios. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2008. "Organisation". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved 18 November 2013. "Pollstarrpro.com" (PDF). "The best music festivals in London". Time Out London. Retrieved 27 January 2016. London's top 40 artists. BBC. 6 April 2006. ISBN 978-0-89820-135-2. Retrieved 9 September 2008. "Punk". AllMusic. Retrieved 19 February 2010. "History of music in London". The London Music Scene. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2009. Walker, Tim (28 July 2008). "Mumford & Sons, The Luminaire, London". The Independent (London). Retrieved 13 October 2012. Warren, Emma (9 December 2011). "From the Dug Out and dreads to DMZ and dubstep: 10 classic club nights". Guardian Music Blog. London. Retrieved 13 October 2012. "London 'greenest city' in Europe". "Kensington Gardens". The Royal Parks. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "Madame Tussauds — Official website". Madame Tussauds. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "Tourist Information". Madame Tussauds. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2008. Mills, A., Dictionary of London Place Names, (2001) "Green Park". The Royal Parks. 2008. Archived from the original on 1 February 2010. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "Greenwich Park". The Royal Parks. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "Bushy Park". The Royal Parks. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "Richmond Park". The Royal Parks. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "Park details – Hampton Court". London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. Archived from the original on 26 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015. "Kew, History & Heritage" (PDF). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 24 January 2013. "City of London Corporation Hampstead Heath". City of London Corporation. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2010. "Epping Forest You & Your Dog" (PDF). brochure. City of London. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 July 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2010. Ramblers. "Corporation of London Open Spaces". Ramblers. Archived from the original on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 12 December 2011. "Green spaces". City of London. Retrieved 27 July 2012. "Kenwood House". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2008. "Epping Forest". cityoflondon.gov.uk. Phil Marson. "Inner London Ramblers – Walk Ideas". innerlondonramblers.org.uk. "Wandle Trail – Map". Sustrans. Ideas for London walks from the Inner London Walking Group "London 1908". International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011. "London 1948". International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011. "England — Introduction". Commonwealth Games Federation. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2008. "London Defeats Doha to host 2017 International Athletics Championships". Gamesbids.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "Barclays Premier League Clubs". Premier League. "Wembley Stadium History — Official Website". Wembley National Stadium Limited. Archived from the original on 3 April 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2008. "Wembley Stadium — Presspack — Facts and Figures". Wembley National Stadium Limited. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "Premiership Rugby: Clubs". Premier Rugby. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010. "RFU apply for two additional concerts at Twickenham Stadium in 2007" (Press release). Twickenham Rugby Stadium. 3 October 2006. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008. 125 years of Wimbledon: From birth of lawn tennis to modern marvels CNN. Retrieved 28 September 2011 "Wimbledon — official website". The All England Tennis and Croquet Club (AELTC). Archived from the original on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2008. Clarey, Christopher (7 May 2008). "Traditional Final: It's Nadal and Federer". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 July 2008. Federer said[:] 'I love playing with him, especially here at Wimbledon, the most prestigious tournament we have.' Will Kaufman & Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson, ed. (2005). "Tennis". Britain and the Americas. 1 : Culture, Politics, and History. ABC-CLIO. p. 958. ISBN 1-85109-431-8. this first tennis championship, which later evolved into the Wimbledon Tournament ... continues as the world's most prestigious event. Burke, Monte (30 May 2012). "What Is The Most Prestigious Grand Slam Tennis Tournament?". Forbes. New York. Retrieved 25 June 2013. "About Lord's—the home of cricket — official website". MCC. 2008. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2008. "The Brit Oval — Official Website". Surrey CCC. 2008. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2008. "Flora London Marathon 2008". London Marathon Ltd. Archived from the original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2008. "The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race — Official Website". The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2008. Bibliography Ackroyd, Peter (2001). London: The Biography. London: Vintage. p. 880. ISBN 978-0-09-942258-7. Mills, David (2001). Dictionary of London Place Names. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-19-280106-7. OCLC 45406491. External links Find more about London at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity London.gov.uk – Greater London Authority VisitLondon.com – Official London tourism site Transport for London (TfL) – city transport authority Museum of London British Pathé – Digitalised archive containing hundreds of films of 20th century London London in British History Online, with links to numerous authoritative online sources Map of Early Modern London – Historical map and encyclopaedia of Shakespeare's London "London", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Peter Ackroyd, Claire Tomalin and Iain Sinclair (28 September 2000) Geographic data related to London at OpenStreetMap vte History of London This is a good article. Follow the link for more information. Page semi-protected England From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the country. For other uses, see England (disambiguation). England Flag of England Flag Anthem: Various proposed Predominantly "God Save the Queen" Location of England (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the United Kingdom (green) Location of England (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the United Kingdom (green) Status Country Capital and largest city London 51°30′N 0°7′WCoordinates: 51°30′N 0°7′W National language English Regional languages Cornish Ethnic groups (2011) 85.4% White 7.8% Asian 3.5% Black 2.3% Mixed 0.4% Arab 0.6% Other[1] Religion Church of England Demonym English Sovereign state Legal jurisdiction United Kingdom England and Wales Government Part of a constitutional monarchy • Monarch Elizabeth II Parliament of the United Kingdom • House of Commons 533 MPs (of 650) Legislature UK Parliament[a] Establishment • Anglo-Saxon settlement 5th–6th century • Unification 10th century • Union with Scotland 1 May 1707 Area • Land 130,279 km2 (50,301 sq mi)[2] Population • 2017 estimate Increase 55,619,400 • 2011 census 53,012,456 • Density 424.3/km2 (1,098.9/sq mi)[3] GVA 2015 estimate • Total £1.43 trillion($2.06 trillion, PPP[4])[5] • Per capita £26,159 ($37,747, PPP[4])[5] Currency Pound sterling (GBP; £) Time zone Greenwich Mean Time (UTC⁠) • Summer (DST) British Summer Time (UTC+1) Date format dd/mm/yyyy (AD) Drives on the left Calling code +44 Patron saint Saint George ISO 3166 code GB-ENG ^ While England does not have its own legislative assembly, a Legislative Grand Committee composed of only the 533 MPs representing English constituencies can scrutinise and vote on bills going through parliament which only affect England. England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.[6][7][8] It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North Atlantic, and includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight. The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but takes its name from the Angles, a Germanic tribe deriving its name from the Anglia peninsula, who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world.[9] The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law – the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world – developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.[10] The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation.[11] England's terrain is chiefly low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north (for example, the mountainous Lake District, and the Pennines) and in the west (for example, Dartmoor and the Shropshire Hills). The capital is London, which has the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union.[nb 1] England's population of over 55 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom,[3] largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East, and Yorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.[12] The Kingdom of England – which after 1535 included Wales – ceased being a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain.[13][14] In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland (through another Act of Union) to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Contents 1 Toponymy 2 History 2.1 Prehistory and antiquity 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Early Modern 2.4 Late Modern and contemporary 3 Governance 3.1 Politics 3.2 Law 3.3 Regions, counties, and districts 4 Geography 4.1 Landscape and rivers 4.2 Climate 4.3 Major conurbations 5 Economy 5.1 Science and technology 5.2 Transport 6 Healthcare 7 Demography 7.1 Population 7.2 Language 7.3 Religion 8 Education 9 Culture 9.1 Architecture 9.2 Folklore 9.3 Cuisine 9.4 Visual arts 9.5 Literature, poetry, and philosophy 9.6 Performing arts 9.7 Cinema 9.8 Museums, libraries, and galleries 10 Sports 11 National symbols 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 14.1 Bibliography 15 External links Toponymy See also: Toponymy of England The name "England" is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means "land of the Angles".[15] The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages. The Angles came from the Anglia (Angeln) peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area (present-day German state of Schleswig–Holstein) of the Baltic Sea.[16] The earliest recorded use of the term, as "Engla londe", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The term was then used in a different sense to the modern one, meaning "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went "out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense.[17] According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its modern spelling was first used in 1538.[18] The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, in which the Latin word Anglii is used.[19] The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape.[20] How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons, came to be used for the entire country and its people is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony between Weser and Eider rivers in Northern Germany.[21] In Scottish Gaelic, another language which developed on the island of Great Britain, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (Sasunn);[22] similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is "Saesneg". An alternative name for England is Albion. The name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th-century BC De Mundo:[23] "Beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the ocean that flows round the earth. In it are two very large islands called Britannia; these are Albion and Ierne".[23][24] But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, i.e. it was written later in the Graeco-Roman period or afterwards. The word Albion (Ἀλβίων) or insula Albionum has two possible origins. It either derives from a cognate of the Latin albus meaning white, a reference to the white cliffs of Dover (the only part of Britain visible from the European mainland)[25] or from the phrase the "island of the Albiones"[26] in the now lost Massaliote Periplus, that is attested through Avienus' Ora Maritima[27] to which the former presumably served as a source. Albion is now applied to England in a more poetic capacity.[28] Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend. History Main article: History of England Prehistory and antiquity Main article: Prehistoric Britain Sun shining through row of upright standing stones with other stones horizontally on the top. Stonehenge, a Neolithic monument The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago.[29] Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years.[30][31] After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula.[32] The sea level was lower than now and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia.[33] As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later. The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores.[34] It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.[35] Painting of woman, with outstretched arm, in white dress with red cloak and helmet, with other human figures to her right and below her to the left. Boudica led an uprising against the Roman Empire During the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Earlier divisions are unknown because the Britons were not literate. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes. The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province.[36] The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street.[37] This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk.[38][39][40] In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor.[41] There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain.[42] By 410, during the Decline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars.[43] Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished: Patrick (5th-century Ireland) and in the 6th century Brendan (Clonfert), Comgall (Bangor), David (Wales), Aiden (Lindisfarne) and Columba (Iona). This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church.[44] Middle Ages Main article: England in the Middle Ages Studded and decorated metallic mask of human face. Replica of the 7th-century ceremonial Sutton Hoo helmet from the Kingdom of East Anglia Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons, Angles, Jutes and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province and began to settle, initially in the eastern part of the country.[43] Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, over-running the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brythonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age. The nature and progression of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is consequently subject to considerable disagreement. Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, disappeared from the conquered territories, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597 onwards.[45] Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about haircuts and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice (Lehane). During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex. Over the following centuries, this process of political consolidation continued.[46] The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence.[47] In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors, it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway. However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042. King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415. King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, fought on Saint Crispin's Day and concluded with an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' War A dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy.[48] The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.[49] This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.[50] Subsequently, the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine.[51] They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V.[51] The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the Magna Carta, an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century[52] and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope. During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and with it France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War.[53] The Black Death epidemic hit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants.[54][55] From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family – the Yorkists and Lancastrians – known as the Wars of the Roses.[56] Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed.[57] Early Modern Painting of large bearded man with fur-trimmed cloak, wearing a hat. King Henry VIII became Supreme Head of the Church of England During the Tudor period, the Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced artistic, educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity.[58] England began to develop naval skills, and exploration to the West intensified.[59][60] Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. In contrast with much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological.[nb 2] He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism. Competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship.[62] With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. During the Elizabethan period, England was at war with Spain. An armada sailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy. The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather and successful harrying attacks by an English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham. This failure did not end the threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in 1596 and 1597, but both were driven back by storms. The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots, James VI, a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating a personal union.[63][64] He styled himself King of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law.[65] Under the auspices of King James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It has not only been ranked with Shakespeare's works as the greatest masterpiece of literature in the English language but also was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century. Painting of seated male figure, with long black hair wearing a white cape and breeches. The English Restoration restored the monarchy under King Charles II and peace after the English Civil War Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I, known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed.[66] After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament.[67] Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.[68][69] With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards[70] with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren. In Parliament two factions had emerged – the Tories and Whigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs, during the Revolution of 1688 invited Dutch prince William of Orange to defeat James and ultimately to become William III of England. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed,[71] the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.[63] To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate.[72] Late Modern and contemporary A stone factory stands against a vivid blue sky, its reflection mirrored in the waters below. Saltaire, West Yorkshire, is a model mill town from the Industrial Revolution, and a World Heritage Site Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.[73] The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain.[74][75] In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – the Stockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public.[74] Cotton mills in Manchester, the world's "first industrial city", circa 1820.[76] During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Birmingham and Manchester, dubbed "Workshop of the World" and "Warehouse City" respectively.[77][78] England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the reign of George III. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east. However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the Scots and Welsh.[79] A cuboid granite cenotaph. The Cenotaph, Whitehall, is a memorial to members of the British Armed Forces who died during the two World Wars London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire – as well as the standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious.[80] Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage.[81] Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies.[nb 3] Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. At the end of the Phoney War, Winston Churchill became the wartime Prime Minister. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel.[83] Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. The UK's NHS provided publicly funded health care to all UK permanent residents free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. Combined, these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century.[84][85] Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent.[86] Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry.[87] As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union. Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.[88] England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom.[89] Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism.[90][91] There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.[92] Governance Politics Main article: Politics of England Photograph of rectangular floodlight building, reflected in water. The building has multiple towers including one at each end. The tower on the right includes an illuminated clock face. The Palace of Westminster, the seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom As part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system.[93] There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.[71] Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England. Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments.[94] In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.[95] In the United Kingdom general election, 2017, the Conservative Party won 317 seats (the Speaker of the House not being counted as a Conservative), more than any other party, though not enough to achieve an overall majority. The Conservative party, headed by the prime minister Theresa May, won 55 more seats than the Labour Party, led by Jeremy Corbyn. The Scottish National Party (Scotland only) won 35 out of 59 Scottish seats in the House of Commons. Lines of men wearing large black bearskin hats and red tunics. Changing of the Queen's Guard at the royal residence, Buckingham Palace As the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union, there are elections held regionally in England to decide who is sent as Members of the European Parliament. The 2014 European Parliament election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs: 22 UK Independence Party (UKIP), 17 Conservatives, 17 Labour, 3 Greens, and one Liberal Democrat. Since devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom – Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland – each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a referendum, this has not been carried out.[92] One major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters.[96] This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free top-up university fees,[97] has led to a steady rise in English nationalism.[98] Some have suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament,[99] while others have proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only affects England to English MPs.[100] Law Main article: English law Ornate grey stone building. The Royal Courts of Justice The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law[101] legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries[102] and the United States (except Louisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent – stare decisis – to the facts before them.[103] The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases.[104] The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords.[105] A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions.[106] Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006.[107] The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.[108] Her Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing over 85,000 convicts.[109] Regions, counties, and districts Main article: Subdivisions of England See also: Regions of England, Counties of England, and Districts of England image attributionNorthumberlandDurhamLancashire CheshireDerbs.Notts. LincolnshireLeics.Staffs. ShropshireWarks.Northants. Norfolk Suffolk EssexHerts.Beds.Bucks.Oxon.Glos. Somerset Wiltshire Berkshire Kent Surrey Hampshire Dorset Devon CornwallHeref.Worcs.BristolEast Riding of YorkshireRutlandCambs.Greater LondonNot shown: City of LondonTyne & WearCumbriaNorth YorkshireSouth Yorks.West YorkshireGreater Manc.MerseysideEast SussexWest Sussex Isle of WightWest Midlands Ceremonial counties of England The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government. The highest tier of local government were the nine regions of England: North East, North West, Yorkshire and the Humber, East Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West, and London. These were created in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the UK government to deliver a wide range of policies and programmes regionally, but there are no elected bodies at this level, except in London, and in 2011 the regional government offices were abolished.[110] The same boundaries remain in use for electing Members of the European Parliament on a regional basis. After devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own elected regional assemblies as a counterweight. London accepted in 1998: the London Assembly was created two years later. However, when the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums, 2004 in the North East, further referendums were cancelled.[92] The regional assemblies outside London were abolished in 2010, and their functions transferred to respective Regional Development Agencies and a new system of Local authority leaders' boards.[111] Below the regional level, all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties.[112] These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages, with some established as recently as 1974.[113] Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally.[112] Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly, England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond to areas used for the purposes of local government[114] and may consist of a single district or be divided into several. There are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas, which do not have county councils.[114] In these areas the principal authorities are the councils of the subdivisions, the metropolitan boroughs. Elsewhere, 27 non-metropolitan "shire" counties have a county council and are divided into districts, each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to large towns or sparsely populated counties; they are known as unitary authorities. Greater London has a different system for local government, with 32 London boroughs, plus the City of London covering a small area at the core governed by the City of London Corporation.[115] At the most localised level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; in Greater London only one, Queen's Park, exists as of 2014 after they were abolished in 1965 until legislation allowed their recreation in 2007. Geography Main article: Geography of England Landscape and rivers Blue lake between green hills. Skiddaw massif, seen from Walla Crag in the Lake District Geographically England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom: to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer to the European continent than any other part of mainland Britain. It is separated from France (Hauts-de-France) by a 21-mile (34 km)[116] sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone.[117] England also has shores on the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean. The ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne respectively. At 220 miles (350 km), the Severn is the longest river flowing through England.[118] It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore (a tidal bore), which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height.[119] However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 miles (346 km) in length.[120] There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly named Lake District.[121] Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country. The northern uplands include the Pennines, a chain of mountains dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and the Cheviot Hills, straddling the border between England and Scotland. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), is Scafell Pike in the Lake District.[121] The Shropshire Hills are near Wales while Dartmoor and Exmoor are two upland areas in the south-west of the country. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by the Tees-Exe line.[122] Green hills with trees in the foreground. Terrain of Dartmoor, Devon In geological terms, the Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago.[123] Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone, and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain two national parks, the Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District. In the West Country, Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite, and enjoy a mild climate; both are national parks.[124] The English Lowlands are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. This also includes relatively flat plains such as the Salisbury Plain, Somerset Levels, South Coast Plain and The Fens. Climate Main article: Climate of England England has a temperate maritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C (32 °F) in winter and not much higher than 32 °C (90 °F) in summer.[125] The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October.[125] Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year. Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude and the warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream.[125] Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country.[125] Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale in Kent,[126] while the lowest was −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire.[127] Major conurbations See also: List of places in England The Greater London Built-up Area is by far the largest urban area in England[128] and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than other countries in the United Kingdom besides England itself.[128] Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands.[128] There are 50 settlements which have been designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has 66. While many cities in England are quite large, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham, population size is not a prerequisite for city status.[129] Traditionally the status was given to towns with diocesan cathedrals, so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester.[129] According to the Office for National Statistics, the ten largest, continuous built-up urban areas are:[128] Rank Urban area Population Major localities 1 Greater London Built-up Area 9,787,426 Greater London, divided into the City of London and 32 London boroughs including Croydon, Barnet, Ealing, Bromley 2 Greater Manchester Built-up Area 2,553,379 Manchester, Salford, Bolton, Stockport, Oldham, Sale, Rochdale, Bury 3 West Midlands conurbation 2,440,986 Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Dudley, Walsall, Solihull, Aldridge 4 West Yorkshire Urban Area 1,777,934 Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield, Wakefield, Halifax 5 Liverpool Urban Area 864,122 Liverpool, St. Helens, Bootle, Huyton-with-Roby 6 South Hampshire 855,569 Southampton, Portsmouth, Eastleigh, Gosport, Fareham, Havant, Horndean 7 Tyneside 774,891 Newcastle, North Shields, South Shields, Gateshead, Jarrow 8 Nottingham Urban Area 729,977 Nottingham, Beeston and Stapleford, Carlton, Long Eaton 9 Sheffield urban area 685,368 Sheffield, Rotherham, Rawmarsh, Killamarsh 10 Bristol Built-up Area 617,280 Bristol, Kingswood, Mangotsfield, Stoke Gifford Economy Main article: Economy of England The City of London is the financial capital of United Kingdom[130][131] England's economy is one of the largest in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £22,907.[132] Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.[133] The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – as of 2014 the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount.[134] The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy,[132] which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical[135] and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there.[136] London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.[137] A grey coloured car. The Bentley Mulsanne. Bentley is a well-known English car company The Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom's central bank. Originally established as private banker to the government of England, since 1946 it has been a state-owned institution.[138] The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the United Kingdom. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.[139] England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy.[87] Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, cars (although many English marques are now foreign-owned, such as Land Rover, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.[140] Most of the UK's £30 billion[141] aerospace industry is primarily based in England. The global market opportunity for UK aerospace manufacturers over the next two decades is estimated at £3.5 trillion.[142] GKN Aerospace – an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures is involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production is based in Redditch.[143] BAE Systems makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub-assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the RAF at its Warton plant, near Preston. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter – the world's largest single defence project – for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage, vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system. It also manufactures the Hawk, the world's most successful jet training aircraft.[143] Rolls-Royce PLC is the world's second-largest aero-engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft, and it has more 30,000 engines currently in service across both the civil and defence sectors. With a workforce of over 12,000 people, Derby has the largest concentration of Rolls-Royce employees in the UK. Rolls-Royce also produces low-emission power systems for ships; makes critical equipment and safety systems for the nuclear industry and powers offshore platforms and major pipelines for the oil and gas industry.[143][144] Much of the UK's space industry is centred on EADS Astrium, based in Stevenage and Portsmouth. The company builds the buses – the underlying structure onto which the payload and propulsion systems are built – for most of the European Space Agency's spacecraft, as well as commercial satellites. The world leader in compact satellite systems, Surrey Satellites, is also part of Astrium.[143] Reaction Engines Limited, the company planning to build Skylon, a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane using their SABRE rocket engine, a combined-cycle, air-breathing rocket propulsion system is based Culham. Agriculture is intensive and highly mechanised, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.[145] Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops.[146] Science and technology Main articles: List of English inventions and discoveries and Royal Society Torso of man with long white hair and dark coloured jacket Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential figures in the history of science Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Charles Darwin, Robert Hooke, James Prescott Joule, John Dalton, Lord Rayleigh, J. J. Thomson, James Chadwick, Charles Babbage, George Boole, Alan Turing, Tim Berners-Lee, Paul Dirac, Stephen Hawking, Peter Higgs, Roger Penrose, John Horton Conway, Thomas Bayes, Arthur Cayley, G. H. Hardy, Oliver Heaviside, Andrew Wiles, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Joseph Priestley, Thomas Young, Christopher Wren and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins, the first secretary of the Royal Society, in 1668.[147] As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.[148] Thomas Newcomen's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.[149] The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.[150] The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine is said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[151][152][153] Inventions and discoveries of the English include: the jet engine, the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTML, the first successful human blood transfusion, the motorised vacuum cleaner,[154] the lawn mower, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory. Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, "cat's eye" road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.[155] Transport Main article: Transport in England Planes congregate by a building. Heathrow Airport has more international passenger traffic than any other airport in the world.[156] The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle[157] (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km).[157] Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.[157] Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include National Express, Arriva and Go-Ahead Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. There is a rapid transit network in two English cities: the London Underground; and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle, Gateshead and Sunderland.[158] There are several tram networks, such as the Blackpool tramway, Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and Midland Metro, and the Tramlink system centred on Croydon in South London.[158] The Metropolitan Railway, now part of the London Underground was the first underground railway in the world Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.[159] Much of Britain's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively, although a high proportion of railway lines were closed in the second half of the 20th century. There are plans to reopen lines such as the Varsity Line between Oxford and Cambridge. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double or quadruple track) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994. England has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is Heathrow, which is the world's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers.[160] Other large airports include Manchester Airport, Stansted Airport, Luton Airport and Birmingham Airport.[156] By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including to Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium.[161] There are around 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal and River Trust,[161] however, water transport is very limited. The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.[161] Healthcare Main article: Healthcare in England Birds I view of a large hospital. Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham, an NHS hospital, has the largest single floor critical care unit in the world The National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge.[162] The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments,[163] and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.[164] The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009.[165] In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions.[166] Map of districts in England and Wales shaded by life expectancy. Life expectancy at birth in England and Wales 2012 to 2014. Lighter colours indicate longer life expectancy. The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.[167] The South of England has a higher life expectancy than the North, however, regional differences do seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years, the fastest increase in any region outside London, and the gap between life expectancy in the North East and South East is now 2.5 years, down from 2.9 in 1993.[168] Demography Main article: Demography of England Population Main article: English people See also: English diaspora, Cornish people, and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom Map of England with regions shaded in different shades of blue. The metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties, colour-coded to show population Population of England and Wales by administrative areas. Their size is approximately in proportion to their population. Colours by quints (1/5th) of number of districts classified by population density with division of extreme quints With over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.[12][169] England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world.[170] With a density of 424 people per square kilometre, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta.[171][172] The English people are a British people.[173] Some genetic evidence suggests that 75–95% descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons, and a significant Scandinavian (Viking) element.[174][175][176] However, other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half.[177][178] Over time, various cultures have been influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic,[179] Roman, Anglo-Saxon,[180] Viking (North Germanic),[181] Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.[nb 4] Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain.[186][187] Pie chart with main body in blue and multiple smaller segments in other colours. 2009 estimates of ethnic groups in England[188] In 1086, when the Domesday Book was compiled, England had a population of two million. About 10% lived in urban areas.[189] By 1801, the population was 8.3 million, and by 1901 30.5 million.[190] Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.[173] There has been significant Irish migration.[191] The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including Germans[192] and Poles.[173] Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.[173][192] 2.90% of the population are black, from Africa and the Caribbean, especially former British colonies.[173][192] There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese.[173][192] In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families,[193] and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.[194] About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.[195] Debate over immigration is politically prominent;[196] 80% of respondents in a 2009 Home Office poll wanted to cap it.[197] The ONS has projected that the population will grow by nine million between 2014 and 2039.[198] England contains one indigenous national minority, the Cornish people, recognised by the UK government under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2014.[199] Language Further information: English language in England See also: English language, History of the English language, and Cornish language Language Native speakers[200] English 46,936,780 Polish 529,173 Punjabi 271,580 Urdu 266,330 Bengali 216,196 Gujarati 212,217 Arabic 152,490 French 145,026 Portuguese 131,002 Welsh 8,248 Cornish 554 Other 2,267,016 Population 51,005,610 English-speaking world Majority native language Official, but not majority language Note: English is also an official language of the EU[201] As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue spoken by 98% of the population.[202] It is an Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family.[203] After the Norman conquest, the Old English language was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy. By the 15th century, English was back in fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins.[204] Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial lingua franca.[205] English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language schooling, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England,[206] but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country. As well as English, England has two other indigenous languages, Cornish and Welsh. Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived,[207][208] and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[209] It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall,[210] and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.[211][212] When the modern border between Wales and England was established by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, many Welsh-speaking communities found themselves on the English side of the border. Welsh was spoken in Archenfield in Herefordshire into the nineteenth century,[213] and by natives of parts of western Shropshire until the middle of the twentieth century if not later.[214] State schools teach students a second language, usually French, German or Spanish.[215] Due to immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home,[193] the most common being Punjabi and Urdu. However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.[216] Religion Large yellow stone ornate building with buttresses and square central tower. Canterbury Cathedral, seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury Main article: Religion in England Further information: History of Christianity in England In the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 24.7% answered that they had no religion, 5% specified that they were Muslim, while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2% did not give an answer.[217] Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier in Gaelic and Roman times. This Celtic Church was gradually joined to the Catholic hierarchy following the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by St Augustine. The established church of England is the Church of England,[218] which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his divorce to the aunt of the king of Spain. The church regards itself as both Catholic and Protestant.[219] Saint George is the patron saint of England There are High Church and Low Church traditions and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo-Catholics, following the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of the church, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head.[220] Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral. The 2nd-largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).[221] There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church. Westminster Abbey is a notable example of English Gothic architecture. The coronation of the British monarch traditionally takes place at the Abbey A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley.[222] It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall.[223] There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army.[224] The patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England, as well as in the Union Flag as part of a combination.[225] There are many other English and associated saints; some of the best-known are: Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.[226] They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.[226] Especially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration. Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.[227] Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined,[227] introduced from India and South East Asia.[227] A small minority of the population practise ancient Pagan religions. Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Witchcraft religions, Druidry, and Heathenry. According to the 2011 UK Census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England,[nb 5] and 3,448 in Wales,[nb 5] including 11,026 Wiccans in England and 740 in Wales.[nb 6] Education Main article: Education in England See also: List of universities in England The frontage of Warwick School, one of the oldest independent schools in England The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.[229] State-run and state-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.[230] Of these, a minority are faith schools (primarily Church of England or Roman Catholic schools). Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university. Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, in some areas there are selective intake grammar schools, to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven-plus exam. Around 7.2% of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources.[231] Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.[232] Large yellow stone building with an arched window and two towers at the end nearest the photographer. In the foreground is grass and water with people in a punt. King's College, University of Cambridge Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England.[233] Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover the cost of tuition fees and living costs.[nb 7] The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or towards a doctorate, which takes three or more years. King's College London's Maughan Library, the biggest university library in the UK England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world; University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, University of Oxford, University College London and King's College London are all ranked in the global top 30 in the 2018 QS World University Rankings.[234] The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[235] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.[236] Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (1st), upper second class (2:1), lower second class (2:2), third (3rd), and unclassified. The King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.[237] Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions.[238] Culture Main article: Culture of England Further information: English Renaissance Architecture White stone building with tower topped with a dome. In the foreground are trees and a red rectangular vertical box with windows. A red telephone box in front of St Paul's Cathedral, one of the most important buildings of the English Baroque period Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; amongst the best known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.[239] With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.[240] It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.[240] Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.[240] Early Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno–Saxon monasticism,[241][242] to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best-known medieval castles are the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.[243] A castle of square plan surrounded by a water-filled moat. It has round corner towers and a forbidding appearance. Bodiam Castle is a 14th-century moated castle near Robertsbridge in East Sussex Throughout the Plantagenet era, an English Gothic architecture flourished, with prime examples including the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster.[243] Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity synthesised with Christianity appeared, the English Baroque style of architect Christopher Wren being particularly championed.[244] Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched. In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.[nb 8] Folklore Main article: English folklore Drawing depicting Robin Hood, wearing Lincoln green clothing, and Sir Guy of Gisbourne, wearing brown furs, in a forest preparing to shoot with bows and arrows. Robin Hood illustrated in 1912 wearing Lincoln green English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, for instance the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith,[246] others date from after the Norman invasion; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham being, perhaps, the best known.[247] During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into the Arthurian myth.[248][249][250] These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources,[249] featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain).[nb 9] Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore. Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch.[252] On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.[253] There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.[254] Cuisine Main article: English cuisine Fish and chips. Fish and chips is a very popular dish in England Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.[255] During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by the food critics with some good ratings in Restaurant's best restaurant in the world charts.[256] An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II.[257] An apple pie on a red tablecloth, with green apples next to it. Apple pie has been consumed in England since the Middle Ages In the 1850s, Englishman Joseph Fry invented the world’s first solid chocolate.[258] Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, and gravy.[259] Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms, and eggs).[260] Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (the latter usually eaten cold)[259] and the Cornish Pasty. Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester and Wensleydale together with Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones (either plain or containing dried fruit) served with jam and/or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits. Common drinks include tea, whose popularity was increased by Catherine of Braganza,[261] whilst frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wines, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout, and brown ale.[262] Visual arts Main article: English art See also: Arts Council England A painting of a red haired woman, sitting in a boat, surrounded by trees. The Lady of Shalott by John William Waterhouse in the Pre-Raphaelite style The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags.[263] With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art such as statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough.[264] During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter.[265] Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.[266] The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court, portrait painting which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this.[266] Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson.[266] The 18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy, a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed, with Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds becoming two of England's most treasured artists.[266] The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, led by artists such as Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais, revived the Early Renaissance style with their vivid and detailed style.[266] Prominent amongst 20th-century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.[267] Contemporary painters include Lucian Freud, whose work Benefits Supervisor Sleeping in 2008 set a world record for sale value of a painting by a living artist.[268] Literature, poetry, and philosophy Main article: English literature A man dressed in grey with a beard, holding a rosary, depicted next to a coat of arms. Geoffrey Chaucer was an English author, poet and philosopher, best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin.[269] The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,[270] along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon's Hymn and hagiographies.[269] Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature. Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote Revelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.[271] Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age.[272] Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract.[272] Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth,[273] while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration. This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise; this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England. William Shakespeare.[274] Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism.[275] The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.[276] In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related.[277] Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll.[278] Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.[279] Performing arts Further information: Folk music of England See also: Music of the United Kingdom Thomas Tallis' "Lamentations I" MENU0:00 "Greensleeves" MENU0:00 Henry Purcell's "The Queen's Dolour (A Farewell)" MENU0:00 Elgar's "Pomp & Circumstance March No. 1" MENU0:00 Problems playing these files? See media help. The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Wynkyn de Worde printed ballads of Robin Hood from the 16th century are an important artefact, as are John Playford's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley's Roxburghe Ballads collections.[280] Some of the best-known songs are Greensleeves, Pastime with Good Company, Maggie May and Spanish Ladies amongst others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, Roses are red, Jack and Jill, London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty.[281] Traditional English Christmas carols include "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", "The First Noel" and "God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen".[282] The Beatles are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music.[283][284][285] Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed up by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period. German-born George Frideric Handel became a British subject[286] and spent most of his composing life in London, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, The Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks. One of his four Coronation Anthems, Zadok the Priest, composed for the coronation of George II, has been performed at every subsequent British coronation, traditionally during the sovereign's anointing. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others.[287] Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano, and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide.[288] In the field of popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling recording artists in the world.[289] Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep.[290] Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden.[291] The Proms – a season of orchestral classical concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall in London – is a major cultural event in the English calendar, and takes place yearly.[291] The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th-century dance, prima ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton. Cinema See also: Cinema of the United Kingdom Ridley Scott was among a group of English filmmakers, including Tony Scott, Alan Parker, Hugh Hudson and Adrian Lyne, who emerged from making 1970s UK television commercials.[292] England (and the UK as a whole) has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers.[293] Hitchcock's first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926), helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 film, Blackmail, is often regarded as the first British sound feature film.[294] Major film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond).[295] Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.[296] Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935.[297] The BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public.[298] English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001.[299] Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Steve McQueen. Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch and Emma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011.[300] The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film.[301] Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh.[302] Museums, libraries, and galleries Further information: List of museums in England A museum building entrance. The Natural History Museum in London English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.[303] Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others.[304] There are many museums in England, but perhaps the most notable is London's British Museum. Its collection of more than seven million objects[305] is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world,[306] sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.[307] The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.[308] The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize.[309] Sports Main article: Sport in England Queen Elizabeth II presenting the World Cup trophy to 1966 World Cup winning England captain Bobby Moore England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football,[310] cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash,[311] rounders,[312] hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One. Football is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872.[313] Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament by defeating West Germany 4–2 in the final, with Geoff Hurst scoring a hat-trick.[314] With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK.[315] The interior of an empty stadium as viewed from its upper tier of seating. The seats are a vivid red and the pitch is a vivid green. The pale grey sky is visible through an opening in the ceiling above the pitch. Wembley Stadium, home of the England football team, has a 90,000 capacity. It is the biggest stadium in the UK At club level, England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, due to Sheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world's oldest club.[310] The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley.[316] The FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day, the Premier League is the world's most-watched football league,[317] most lucrative,[318] and amongst the elite.[319] As is the case throughout the UK, football in England is notable for the rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants.[320][321] The European Cup (now UEFA Champions League) has been won by several English clubs.[322] Men in cricket whites play upon a green grass cricket field amidst a stadium. England playing Australia at Lord's Cricket Ground in the 2009 Ashes series Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald.[323] The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales, team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. The climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television.[324] England has hosted four Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999) and will host the 2019 edition, but never won the tournament, reaching the final 3 times. However they have hosted the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009, winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final. In the domestic competition, the County Championship, Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times.[325] Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".[326] William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. In 1994, then President of the IOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".[327] London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. White men in grey suits, pale blue shirts and red ties celebrate upon the top floor of an open-top bus. On man holds a golden trophy in the air with one hand. The England rugby union team during their victory parade after winning the 2003 Rugby World Cup Rugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century.[328] The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, with Jonny Wilkinson scoring the winning drop goal in the last minute of extra time against Australia. England was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and also hosted the 2015 Rugby World Cup.[329] The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps, Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup. Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria.[330] All eleven English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England. Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors, Hull F.C. St. Helens, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously. Golf has been prominent in England; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland, the home of Golf.[331] There are both professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. England has produced grand slam winners: Cyril Walker, Tony Jacklin, Nick Faldo, and Justin Rose in the men's and Laura Davies, Alison Nicholas, and Karen Stupples in the women's. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.[332] Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever, having won the most points (25) of any player on either the European or US teams.[333] Centre Court at Wimbledon. First played in 1877, the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world.[334] Tennis was created in Birmingham, England in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.[335][336] Wimbledon is a tournament that has a major place in the British cultural calendar. Fred Perry was the last Englishman to win Wimbledon in 1936. He was the first player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles[337] and helped lead the Great Britain team to four Davis Cup wins. English women who have won Wimbledon include: Ann Haydon Jones in 1969 and Virginia Wade in 1977. In boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies. World champions include Bob Fitzsimmons, Ted "Kid" Lewis, Randolph Turpin, Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, Frank Bruno, Lennox Lewis, Ricky Hatton, Naseem Hamed, Amir Khan, Carl Froch, and David Haye.[338] In women's boxing, Nicola Adams became the world's first woman to win an Olympic boxing Gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.[339] Red Rum is also the best-known racehorse in the country.[340] Former Formula One world champion Nigel Mansell driving at Silverstone in 1990. The circuit hosted the first ever Formula One race in 1950 The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship.[341] Since then, England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport, including; John Surtees, Stirling Moss, Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Damon Hill, Lewis Hamilton and Jenson Button.[342] It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation. McLaren Automotive, Williams F1, Team Lotus, Honda, Brawn GP, Benetton, Renault, and Red Bull Racing are all, or have been, located in the south of England. England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle: Mike Hailwood, John Surtees, Phil Read, Geoff Duke, and Barry Sheene. Mo Farah is the most successful British track athlete in modern Olympic Games history, winning the 5000 m and 10,000 m events at two Olympic Games Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditional pub game. The sport is governed by the World Darts Federation, one of its member organisations is the BDO, which annually stages the Lakeside World Professional Championship, the other being the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC), which runs its own world championship at Alexandra Palace in London. Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time, having won 187 professional tournaments, and a record 16 World Championships.[343][344] Trina Gulliver is the ten-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is Snooker, and England has produced several world champions, including Steve Davis and Ronnie O'Sullivan. The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the worlds most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup. England has produced some of the world's greatest sailors, including, Francis Chichester, Herbert Hasler, John Ridgway, Robin Knox-Johnston, Ellen MacArthur, Mike Golding, Paul Goodison, and the most successful Olympic sailor ever Ben Ainslie.[345] National symbols Main article: National symbols of England A red shield tapers to its bottom end; on it are three stylised golden lions with blue claws. The Royal Arms of England The St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner.[346] Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.[225] A red and white flower. The Tudor rose, England's national floral emblem There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.[347] It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians—cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the nation. It is also known as the Rose of England.[348] The oak tree is a symbol of England, representing strength and endurance. The Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasp of the parliamentarians after his father's execution: he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before safely reaching exile. The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with its adoption by Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the Queen. However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems: Jerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games),[349] and I Vow to Thee, My Country. England's National Day is 23 April which is St George's Day: St George is the patron saint of England.[350] See also flag England portal flag United Kingdom portal Outline of England Outline of the United Kingdom Notes According to the European Statistical Agency, London is the largest Larger Urban Zone in the EU, a measure of metropolitan area which comprises a city's urban core as well as its surrounding commuting zone. London's municipal population is also the largest in the EU. As Roger Scruton explains, "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not make substantial change in doctrine until later."[61] Figure of 550,000 military deaths is for England and Wales[82] For instance, in 1980 around 50 million Americans claimed English ancestry.[182] In Canada there are around 6.5 million Canadians who claim English ancestry.[183] Around 70% of Australians in 1999 denoted their origins as Anglo-Celtic, a category which includes all peoples from Great Britain and Ireland.[184] Chileans of English descent are somewhat of an anomaly in that Chile itself was never part of the British Empire, but today there are around 420,000 people of English origins living there.[185] People who strictly identified as "Pagan". Other Pagan paths, such as Wicca or Druidism, have not been included in this number.[228] People who strictly identified as "Wiccan". Other Pagan paths, such as Druidism, and general "Pagan" have not been included in this number.[228] Students attending English universities now have to pay tuition fees towards the cost of their education, as do English students who choose to attend university in Scotland. Scottish students attending Scottish universities have their fees paid by the devolved Scottish Parliament.[97] While people such as Norman Foster and Richard Rogers represent the modernist movement, Prince Charles since the 1980s has voiced strong views against it in favour of traditional architecture and put his ideas into practice at his Poundbury development in Dorset.[245] Architects like Raymond Erith, Francis Johnson and Quinlan Terry continued to practise in the classical style. These tales may have come to prominence, at least in part, as an attempt by the Norman ruling elite to legitimise their rule of the British Isles, finding Anglo-Saxon history ill-suited to the task during an era when members of the deposed House of Wessex, especially Edgar the Ætheling and his nephews of the Scottish House of Dunkeld, were still active in the isles.[249][251] Also Michael Wood explains; "Over the centuries the figure of Arthur became a symbol of British history – a way of explaining the matter of Britain, the relationship between the Saxons and the Celts, and a way of exorcising ghosts and healing the wounds of the past."[248] References "2011 Census: KS201EW Ethnic group: local authorities in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 April 2014. Region and Country Profiles, Key Statistics and Profiles, October 2013, ONS. Retrieved 9 August 2015. Jonathan, McMullan, (28 June 2018). "Population estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland". www.ons.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". www.imf.org. Office for National Statistics. "Regional gross value added (income approach), UK: 1997 to 2015, December 2015". Retrieved 24 April 2017. Office for National Statistics. "The Countries of the UK". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009. "Countries within a country". number-10.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009. "Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements (Page 11)" (PDF). International Organization for Standardization. Retrieved 1 February 2009. "England – Culture". britainusa.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009. "Country profile: United Kingdom". BBC News. news.bbc.co.uk. 26 October 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2009. "Industrial Revolution". Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27 April 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009. 2011 Census – Population and household estimates for England and Wales, March 2011. Accessed 31 May 2013. William E. Burns, A Brief History of Great Britain, p. xxi Acts of Union 1707 parliament.uk. Retrieved 27 January 2011 "England". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 21 July 2010. Ripley 1869, p. 570. Molyneaux 2015, pp. 6–7. "England". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 12 July 2013. "Germania". Tacitus. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Angle". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 5 September 2009.[dead link] Crystal 2004, pp. 26–27 Forbes, John (1848). The Principles of Gaelic Grammar. Edinburgh: Oliver, Boyd and Tweeddale. Massey 2007, p. 440. Greek "... ἐν τούτῳ γε μὴν νῆσοι μέγιστοι τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι δύο, Βρεττανικαὶ λεγόμεναι, Ἀλβίων καὶ Ἰέρνη, ...", transliteration "... en toutoi ge men nesoi megistoi tynchanousin ousai dyo, Brettanikai legomenai, Albion kai Ierne, ...", translation "... There are two very large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne; ..."; Aristotle or Pseudo-Aristotle. "On the Cosmos, 393b12". On Sophistical Refutations. On Coming-to-be and Passing Away. On the Cosmos. Translated by Forster, E. S.; Furley, D. J. William Heinemann LTD, Harvard University Press. pp. 360–361. at the Open Library Project.DjVu Room 2006, p. 23. Major 2004, p. 84. Avienus' Ora Maritima, verses 111–112, i.e. eamque late gens Hiernorum colit; propinqua rursus insula Albionum patet. Foster 1988, p. 9. "500,000 BC – Boxgrove". Current Archaeology. Current Publishing. Retrieved 20 December 2010. "Palaeolithic Archaeology Teaching Resource Box" (PDF). Palaeolithic Rivers of South-West Britain Project(2006). Retrieved 20 December 2010. "Chalk east". A Geo East Project. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2010. Oppenheimer 2006, p. 173. "Tertiary Rivers: Tectonic and structural background". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 9 September 2009. "Function and significance of Bell Beaker pottery according to data from residue analyses". Retrieved 21 December 2010. Reid, Struan (1994). Inventions and Trade. P.8. ISBN 978-0-921921-30-1. Retrieved 23 December 2010. Burke, Jason (2 December 2000). "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak". The Observer. London. Archived from the original on 22 October 2003. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals". Alfred John Church, William Jackson Brudribh, Ed. Retrieved 22 December 2010. Bedoyere, Guy. "Architecture in Roman Britain". Heritage Key. Archived from the original on 3 July 2009. Retrieved 23 December 2010. Philip, Robert (1860). The History of Progress in Great Britain, Volume 2. Retrieved 23 December 2010. Bob Rees; Paul Shute; Nigel Kelly (9 January 2003). Medicine through time. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-30841-4. Retrieved 24 December 2010. Rankov 1994, p. 16. Wright 2008, p. 143. James, Edward. "Overview: Anglo-Saxons, 410 to 800". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2010. See Early Christian Christianity, Brendan Lehane, Constable, London: John Murray Ltd., 1968 "The Christian Tradition". PicturesofEngland.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Kirby 2000, p. 4 Lyon 1960, p. 23. "Overview: The Normans, 1066–1154". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2010. Crouch 2006, pp. 2–4 "Norman invasion word impact study". BBC News. 20 February 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2010. Bartlett 1999, p. 124. "Edward I (r. 1272–1307)". Royal.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 21 September 2009. Fowler 1967, p. 208. Ziegler 2003, p. 230. Goldberg 1996, p. 4. Crofton 2007, p. 111. "Richard III (r. 1483–1485)". Royal.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 10 July 2008. Retrieved 21 September 2009. Hay, Denys (1988). Renaissance essays. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-907628-96-5. Retrieved 26 December 2010. "Royal Navy History, Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy". Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2010. Smith, Goldwin. England Under the Tudors. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-60620-939-4. Retrieved 26 December 2010. Scruton 1982, p. 470. Ordahl, Karen (25 February 2007). Roanak:the abandoned colony. Rowman & Littlefield publishers Inc. ISBN 978-0-7425-5263-0. Retrieved 24 December 2010. Colley 1992, p. 12. "Making the Act of Union". Parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Hay, Denys. "The term "Great Britain" in the Middle Ages" (PDF). ads.ahds.ac.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 19 February 2009. "Oliver Cromwell (English statesman)". Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2009. Philip J. Adler; Randall L. Pouwels (27 November 2007). World Civilization. p. 340. ISBN 978-0-495-50262-3. Retrieved 24 December 2010. "Democracy Live: Black Rod". BBC. Retrieved 6 August 2008 Wikisource Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Black Rod". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. "London's Burning: The Great Fire". BBC News. Retrieved 25 September 2009. "The first Parliament of Great Britain". Parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Gallagher 2006, p. 14. Hudson, Pat. "The Workshop of the World". BBC. Retrieved 10 December 2010. Office for National Statistics 2000, p. 5 McNeil & Nevell 2000, p. 4. "Manchester – the first industrial city". Entry on Sciencemuseum website. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 17 March 2012. McNeil & Nevell 2000, p. 9. Birmingham City Council. "Heritage". visitbirmingham.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2009. Colley 1992, p. 1. Haggard, Robert F. (2001). The persistence of Victorian liberalism:The Politics of Social Reform in Britain, 1870–1900. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-313-31305-9. Retrieved 26 December 2010. Crawford, Elizabeth. "Women: From Abolition to the Vote". BBC. Retrieved 10 December 2010. Cox 1970, p. 180 Golley, John (10 August 1996). "Obituaries: Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle". The Independent. London. Retrieved 2 December 2010. Clark 1973, p. 1. Wilson & Game 2002, p. 55. Gallagher 2006, pp. 10–11. Reitan 2003, p. 50. Keating, Michael (1 January 1998). "Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom". Publius: the Journal of Federalism. 28 (1): 217. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948. Retrieved 4 February 2009. "The coming of the Tudors and the Act of Union". BBC Wales. BBC News. 2009. Retrieved 9 September 2009. Kenny, English & Hayton 2008, p. 3. Ward 2004, p. 180. Sherman, Jill; Andrew Norfolk (5 November 2004). "Prescott's dream in tatters as North East rejects assembly". The Times. London. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "The British Parliamentary System". BBC News. Retrieved 20 April 2010. Cabinet Office (26 March 2009). "Devolution in the United Kingdom". cabinetoffice.gov.uk. Retrieved 16 August 2009. "Lists of MPs". Parliament.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2009. "West Lothian question". BBC News. 31 October 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Are Scottish people better off?". MSN Money. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "English nationalism 'threat to UK'". BBC News. 9 January 2000. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Davidson, Lorraine (3 June 2008). "Gordon Brown pressed on English parliament". The Times. London. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Grice, Andrew (1 July 2008). "English votes for English laws' plan by Tories". The Independent. London. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Common Law". The People's Law Dictionary. ALM Media Properties. Retrieved 5 October 2013. "The Common Law in the British Empire". H-net.msu.edu. 19 October 2000. Retrieved 20 August 2011. Fafinski 2007, p. 60. Fafinski 2007, p. 127. "Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom" (PDF). DCA.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Fafinski 2007, p. 67. "Crime over the last 25 years" (PDF). HomeOffice.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "New record high prison population". BBC News. 8 February 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Prison population figures". Ministry Of Justice. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 November 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012. Cooper, Hilary (29 March 2011). "Tiers shed as regional government offices disappear". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 16 June 2011. Department for Communities and Local Government. "Prosperous Places" (PDF). communities.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica 2002, p. 100 Redcliffe-Maud & Wood 1974. Singh 2009, p. 53. Axford 2002, p. 315. "English Channel". Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2009. "History". EuroTunnel.com. Archived from the original on 16 November 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "The River Severn". BBC. Retrieved 5 December 2010. "Severn Bore and Trent Aegir". Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010. "River Thames and London (England)". London Evening Standard. London. Retrieved 17 August 2009.[dead link] "North West England & Isle of Man: climate". Met Office. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2010. "World Regional Geography". Google Books. Joseph J. Hobbs. Retrieved 6 December 2017. "Pennines". Smmit Post. Retrieved 8 September 2009. "National Parks – About us". nationalparks.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 December 2010. "What is the Climate like in Britain?". Woodlands Kent. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Temperature record changes hands". BBC News. 30 September 2003. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "English Climate". MetOffice.com. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. "2011 Census – Built-up areas". ONS. Retrieved 5 February 2014. O'Brian, Harriet (24 November 2007). "The Complete Guide To: Cathedral cities in the UK". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 12 August 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2009. "London vs. New York, 2005–06". Cinco Dias. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Global Financial Centres Index, 2009–03" (PDF). City of London Corporation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Office for National Statistics. "Regional Accounts". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009. "The Welfare State – Never Ending Reform". BBC News. Retrieved 17 September 2009. Brignall, Miles (19 March 2014). "Personal allowance: Osborne's budget has been far from generous". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 June 2014. "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 27 April 2013. "Financial Centre". London.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2009. City of London Policy; Resources Committee. "The Global Financial Centres Index" (PDF). cityoflondon.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "The Bank's relationship with Parliament". BankofEngland.co.uk. Archived from the original on 8 July 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Monetary Policy Committee". BankofEngland.co.uk. Archived from the original on 8 July 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "England Exports". EconomyWatch.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Tovey, Alan. "New aerospace technologies to get £365 million funding". Retrieved 11 June 2017. "Born to fly: the real value of UK aerospace manufacture". "Reasons to be cheerful about the UK aerospace sector". theengineer.co.uk. "About – Rolls-Royce". Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014. "World Guide – England – Economy Overview". World Guide. Intute. Retrieved 9 September 2009. "Economy of the United Kingdom" (PDF). PTeducation. Retrieved 8 October 2009. "Metric system was British". BBC News. 13 July 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Isambard Kingdom Brunel". DesignMuseum.org. Archived from the original on 12 September 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Oakes 2002, p. 214 Ronald Shillingford (2010). "The History of the World's Greatest- Entrepreneurs: Biographies of Success". p. 64–69 Saunders 1982, p. 13 White 2009, p. 335 Levine 1960, p. 183 Wohleber, Curt (Spring 2006). "The Vacuum Cleaner". Invention & Technology Magazine. American Heritage Publishing. Archived from the original on 13 March 2010. Retrieved 8 December 2010. "English Inventors and Inventions". English-Crafts.co.uk. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009. O'Hanlon 2008, p. 205 UK Parliament 2007, p. 175 White 2002, p. 63. "27 September 1825 – Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway". The Stockton and Darlington Railway. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013. "Delta Expects New Slots To Foster Growth At Heathrow Airport". The Wall Street Journal. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011. Else 2007, p. 781. "BBC History on William Beveridge". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "NHS Expenditure in England" (PDF). House of Commons Library. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "NHS costs and exemptions". Department of Health. Retrieved 5 September 2009.[dead link] "Budget 2008, Chapter C" (PDF). HM Treasury. 3 March 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Private sector role in NHS". BBC News. 30 June 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Office for National Statistics. "Life expectancy". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009. Cite error: The named reference LifeExpect was invoked but never defined (see the help page). Office for National Statistics. "Population estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland – current datasets". statistics.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 October 2013. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. "World Population Prospects: Analytical Report for the 2004". United Nations. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Mason, Chris (16 September 2008). "Density of England rises". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Khan, Urmee (16 September 2008). "England is most crowded country in Europe". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Office for National Statistics (2011). "Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales 2011". Statistics.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 October 2013. Oppenheimer 2006, p. 378. "British and Irish, descendant of the Basques?". Eitb24.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Oppenheimer, Stephen (10 October 2006). "What does being British mean? Ask the Spanish". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 15 July 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Wade, Nicholas (6 March 2007). "A United Kingdom? Maybe". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 August 2009. Thomas, M.G.; Stumpf, M.P.; Härke, H. (2006). "Evidence for an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England". Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 273 (1601): 2651–7. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3627. PMC 1635457 Freely accessible. PMID 17002951. "Roman Britons after 410". Britarch.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 22 May 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Cameron, Keith (March 1994). Anglo-Saxon Origins: The Reality of the Myth. Malcolm Todd. ISBN 978-1-871516-85-2. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Legacy of the Vikings". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Shifting Identities – statistical data on ethnic identities in the US". Bnet. 2001. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2009. "Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 29 July 2009. Centre for Population and Urban Research, Monash University. "Australian Population: Ethnic Origins" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2009. "Inmigración británica en Chile". Galeon.com. Retrieved 29 July 2009. Burke, Jason (9 October 2005). "An Englishman's home is his casa as thousands go south". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Travis, Alan; Sarah Knapton (16 November 2007). "Record numbers leave the country for life abroad". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 8 August 2009. "ONS: Population Estimates by Ethnic Group 2002–2009" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011. University of Wisconsin. "Medieval English society". Archived from the original on 25 October 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2014. "Chapter 1 - The UK population: past, present and future" (PDF). Focus on People and Migration (PDF) (Report). Office for National Statistics. 7 December 2005. Retrieved 16 February 2017. "One in four Britons claim Irish roots". BBC News. 16 March 2001. Retrieved 26 November 2010. "British Immigration Map Revealed". BBC News. 7 September 2005. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Paton, Graeme (1 October 2007). "One fifth of children from ethnic minorities". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 14 August 2014. Shepherd, Jessica (22 June 2011). "Almost a quarter of state school pupils are from an ethnic minority". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 January 2014. Leppard, David (10 April 2005). "Immigration rise increases segregation in British cities". The Times. London. Retrieved 8 August 2009. "Immigration debate hots up in England". The Independent News Service. 26 November 2008. Retrieved 14 August 2014. Milland, Gabriel (23 July 2009). "80% say cap immigration". Daily Express. London. Retrieved 5 September 2009. National Population Projections: 2014-based Statistical Bulletin (Report). Office for National Statistics. 29 October 2015. "Cornish people formally declared a national minority along with Scots, Welsh and Irish". The Independent. 23 April 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014. QS204EW – Main language, ONS 2011 Census. Retrieved 21 July 2015. "Official EU languages". European Commission. 8 May 2009. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 16 October 2009. QS205EW – Proficiency in English, ONS 2011 census. Out of the 51,005,610 residents of England over the age of three, 50,161,765 (98%) can speak English "well" or "very well". Retrieved 20 July 2015. Arlotto 1971, p. 108. Green 2003, p. 13. Mujica, Mauro E. (19 June 2003). "English: Not America's Language?". The Globalist. Washington DC. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009. "English language history". Yaelf. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Government Offices for the English Regions. "Cornish language". gos.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2009. "The Cornish Language Development Project – Evaluation – Final Report, page 20". Hywel Evans, Aric Lacoste / ERS. Retrieved 5 October 2013. "South West – Cornish Language". Government Office South West. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2009. "On being a Cornish "Celt": changing Celtic heritage and traditions" (PDF). University of Exeter. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2009. Dugan, Emily (6 September 2009). "The Cornish: They revolted in 1497, now they're at it again". The Independent. London. Retrieved 17 September 2009. "Cornish in Schools". Cornish Language Partnership. 2009. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013. 'Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club', Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, 1886–89, p. 137. Mark Ellis Jones, 'Little Wales beoynd England: the struggle of Selattyn, a Welsh parish in Shropshire', Journal of the National Library of Wales,, 31.1 (1999), pp. 132–3. Lipsett, Anthea (26 June 2008). "Number of primaries teaching foreign languages doubles". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 23 September 2009. Booth, Robert (30 January 2013). "Polish becomes England's second language". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 30 January 2013. "Table KS209EW 2011 Census: Religion, local authorities in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. 11 December 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2017. "Church of England". BBC. Retrieved 4 December 2010. "In depth history of the Church of England". Church of England. Retrieved 25 January 2017. The religious settlement that eventually emerged in the reign of Elizabeth gave the Church of England the distinctive identity that it has retained to this day. It resulted in a Church that consciously retained a large amount of continuity with the Church of the Patristic and Medieval periods in terms of its use of the catholic creeds, its pattern of ministry, its buildings and aspects of its liturgy, but which also embodied Protestant insights in its theology and in the overall shape of its liturgical practice. The way that this is often expressed is by saying that the Church of England is both 'catholic and reformed.' "Global Anglicanism at a Crossroads". PewResearch.org. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "People here 'must obey the laws of the land'". The Daily Telegraph. London. 9 February 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "The Methodist Church". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "AN INDEPENDENT ACADEMIC STUDY ON CORNISH" (PDF). p. 8. Retrieved 26 December 2010. "Cambridge History of Christianity". Hugh McLeod. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "United Kingdom – History of the Flag". FlagSpot.net. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "From Expulsion (1290) to Readmission (1656): Jews and England" (PDF). Goldsmiths.ac.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2009. Office for National Statistics. "Religion". Statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "2011 ONS results". Retrieved 28 October 2017. Gearon 2002, p. 246. West 2003, p. 28. "Independent Schools in the United Kingdom". Encarta. encarta.msn.com. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009. Gearon 2002, p. 102. United Kingdom Parliamen. "Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills Committee Contents". publications.parliament.uk. Retrieved 16 September 2009. "QS World University Rankings 2018 | Top Universities". QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited. Retrieved 11 June 2017. Hoyle, Ben (23 September 2007). "The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2007 – Profile for London School of Economics". The Times. London. Retrieved 6 June 2008. "FT Global MBA Rankings". Financial Times. Retrieved 25 January 2010. Webster 1937, p. 383. Lowe 1971, p. 317. "The Prehistoric Sites of Great Britain". Stone-Circles.org.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Ancient Roman architecture in England and Wales". Castles.me.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Colgrave 1985, p. 326. Pevsner 1942, p. 14. Atkinson 2008, p. 189. Downes 2007, p. 17. "Architects to hear Prince appeal". BBC News. 12 May 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2009. Keary 1882, p. 50. Pollard 2004, p. 272. Wood, Michael. "King Arthur, 'Once and Future King'". BBC News. Retrieved 16 September 2009. Higham 2002, p. 25. Koch 2006, p. 732. Lacy 1986, p. 649. Briggs 2004, p. 26. Withington 2008, p. 224. "What is England's national costume?". Woodlands-Junior.kent.sch.uk. Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 24 June 2009. Else 2007, p. 76. "The S.Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants". TheWorlds50Best.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Mart, Nicole (22 September 2008). "King Richard II's recipe book to go online". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Chocolate History: Who Invented Chocolate?", Facts-About-Chocolate.com "Traditional English Food Specialities". TravelSignPosts.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "How to make the perfect full English breakfast". 25 June 2015. "Catherine of Braganza". Tea.co.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Types of Beer". Icons of England. Archived from the original on 30 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "The Prehistoric Cave Art of England" (PDF). ArchaeologyDataService.ac.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009. English Heritage. "Aldborough Roman Site". english-heritage.org.uk. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Early Middle Ages Art". Tiscali.co.uk. Archived from the original on 27 February 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "English art". Tiscali.co.uk. Archived from the original on 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Turner, Chris. "The Bronze Age: Henry Moore and his successors". Tate Magazine (6). "Freud work sets new world record". BBC News. 14 May 2008. Retrieved 14 May 2008. Warner 1902, p. 35. Rogers 2001, p. 17. Rogers 2001, p. 135. Rowse 1971, p. 48. Norbrook 2000, p. 6. "Richard II". William Shakespeare. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Heywood 2007, p. 74. Watson 1985, p. 360. Cole 1947, p. 268. Hawkins-Dady 1996, p. 970. Eccleshare 2002, p. 5. Chappell 1966, p. 690. Lax 1989, p. 7. Richard Michael Kelly. A Christmas carol p.10. Broadview Press, 2003 ISBN 1-55111-476-3 Paul At Fifty: Paul McCartney Time Magazine'.' Retrieved 25 October 2014 Most Successful Group The Guinness Book of Records 1999, p.230. Retrieved 25 October 2014. 100 Greatest Artists Of All Time: The Beatles (No.1) Rolling Stone'.' Retrieved 25 October 2014. United Kingdom Parliament (July 2009). "British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel". Parliamentary Archives. parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2009. Stradling 1993, p. 166. "Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: the new musical" The New York Times.. referred to Andrew Lloyd Webber as "the most commercially successful composer in history" Recording Industry Association of America. "Top Selling Artists". riaa.com. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Else 2007, p. 65. Foreman 2005, p. 371. "Jets, jeans and Hovis". The Guardian. 12 June 2015. "The Directors' Top Ten Directors". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. St. Pierre, Paul Matthew (1 April 2009). Music Hall Mimesis in British Film, 1895–1960: On the Halls on the Screen. New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-61147-399-5. "Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise". The Guardian. London. 11 September 2007. Retrieved 2 November 2010. "History of Ealing Studios". Ealing Studios. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2015. London Symphony Orchestra and Film Music Archived 30 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. LSO. Retrieved 30 June 2011 "Life of Brian tops comedy poll". BBC News (Total Film magazine poll: 29 September 2000) Retrieved 27 June 2015 Statistical Yearbook 2011: 7.3 UK directors Archived 15 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. UK Film Council. "Does Andy Serkis's motion capture acting deserve an Oscar?". The Telegraph. Retrieves 11 January 2015 "Tim Webber: the man who put Sandra Bullock in space". Evening Standard. Retrieved 17 January 2014 Barry Ronge's Classic DVD : Alice in Wonderland, The Times, It was made under the personal supervision of Walt Disney, and he took special care when animating British fantasy. He called them his "English Cycle". UNESCO. "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". World Heritage. whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 8 September 2009. "English World Heritage Sites to get strongest ever protections" (PDF). Institute of Historic Building Conservation. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Museum in London". BritishMuseum.org. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "250 Years of the British Museum". Time. 15 January 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009. "British Library". Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "The National Gallery". ArtInfo.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Youngs, Ian (31 October 2002). "The art of Turner protests". BBC News. Retrieved 10 August 2009. "Sheffield FC: 150 years of history". FIFA. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "History of squash". WorldSquash2008.com. Archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "History of the Game". NRA-Rounders.co.uk. Archived from the original on 23 February 2006. Paul Mitchell. "The first international football match". BBC. Retrieved 15 January 2015. "Hurst the hero for England in the home of football". FIFA.com. Retrieved 15 January 2015 "Tracking 30 years of TV's most watched programmes". BBC. Retrieved 25 June 2015 Rudd, Alyson (7 April 2008). "The father of football deserves much more". London: Times Online. Retrieved 15 January 2015. "History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief". The Times. Retrieved 30 November 2013 "Premier League towers over world football, says Deloitte". sportbusiness.com. Archived from the original on 7 April 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2010. "UEFA ranking of European leagues". UEFA. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Caudwell, J.C. (2011). "'Does your boyfriend know you're here?' The spatiality of homophobia in men's football culture in the UK". Leisure Studies. 30 (2): 123–138. doi:10.1080/02614367.2010.541481. Richard Holt, Tony Mason. Sport in Britain, 1945–2000. p.129. Wiley-Blackwell, 2000 "UEFA Champions League Finals 1956–2008". RSSSF. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Underdown 2000, p. 6. Cricinfo staff (26 August 2009). Ashes climax watched by a fraction of 2005 audience. Cricinfo. Retrieved 9 September 2009. A brief history of Yorkshire. Cricinfo. Retrieved 9 September 2009. Fay, Stephen (21 June 1998). "Cricket: Flaw Lord's out of order". The Independent. London. Retrieved 9 September 2009. "Father of the modern Olympics". BBC. 22 September 2017. "Origins of Rugby – Codification "The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1820 and 1830."". Rugbyfootballhistory.com. Retrieved 15 August 2011. "England will host 2015 Rugby World Cup". BBC News. 28 July 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Rugby League World Cup 2013 will provide the sport with a true test of its popularity". The Telegraph. Retrieved 23 September 2015 "Scotland is the home of golf". PGA Tour official website. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2008. Scotland is the home of golf ... Fry, Peter (July 2000). Samuel Ryder: The Man Behind the Ryder Cup. Wright Press. "Sir Nick Faldo drives on in business world". BBC. Retrieved 29 December 2013 125 years of Wimbledon: From birth of lawn tennis to modern marvels CNN. Retrieved 28 September 2011 Clarey, Christopher (5 July 2008). "Traditional Final: It's Nadal and Federer". The New York Times. nytimes.co.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Kaufman & Macpherson 2005, p. 958. Jackson, Peter (3 July 2009). "Who was Fred Perry?". BBC News. Retrieved 6 July 2012. "Top 20 British Boxers". Retrieved 12 April 2011. Red Rum: Aintree favourite BBC. Retrieved 11 October 2011 "Red Rum is UK's best-known horse". BBC. Retrieved 18 March 2016 "The History of British Motorsport and Motor Racing at Silverstone". Silverstone. Silverstone.co.uk. Retrieved 31 October 2009. "F1 Champions: Dan Wheldon killed in Las Vegas". ESPN. Retrieved 15 December 2011. BBC (6 January 2003). "Part relishes Taylor triumph". BBC. Retrieved 18 January 2010. "Phil Taylor player profile". Dartsdatabase. Retrieved 23 July 2010. Benammar, Emily (22 May 2009). "The World Oldest Trans Atlantic Race". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 22 May 2009. "St. George – England's Patron Saint". Britannia.com. Retrieved 1 February 2009. "National flowers". Number10.gov.uk. 13 January 2003. Archived from the original on 9 September 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2009. Smith, Jed (3 June 2005). "England's Rose – The Official History". Museum of Rugby, Twickenham. RugbyNetwork.net. Retrieved 8 August 2009. "Jason Cowley loves the Commonwealth Games". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013. "The Great Saint George Revival". BBC News. 23 April 1998. Retrieved 5 September 2009. Bibliography Ackroyd, Peter (2000). London: the biography. Chatto & Windus. ISBN 1-85619-716-6. Arlotto, Anthony (1971). Introduction to historical linguistics. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-12615-0. Atkinson, T.D. (2008). English Architecture. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4097-2581-7. Axford, Barrie (2002). Politics: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25181-8. Ball, Martin (1993). The Celtic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01035-7. Bartlett, Robert (1999). England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925101-0. Bennett, James (2004). The Anglosphere Challenge. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-3333-6. Brewer, Ebenezer (2006). Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1-84022-310-3. Briggs, Katharine (2004). A Dictionary of British Folk-tales in the English Language. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-39737-1. Chappell, William (1966). The Roxburghe Ballads. New York: AMS Press. OCLC 488599560. Clark, David M.; Steed, Michael; Marshall, Sally (1973). Greater Manchester Votes: A Guide to the New Metropolitan Authorities. Stockport: Redrose. ISBN 978-0-9502932-0-2. Clemoes, Peter (2007). Anglo-Saxon England, Volume 12. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-03834-0. Cole, George (1947). The Life of William Cobbett. Home & Van Thal. ISBN 0-8492-2139-0. Colgrave, Bertram (1985). Two lives of Saint Cuthbert. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31385-6. Colley, Linda (1992). Britons: Forging the Nation, 1701–1837. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05737-9. Cox, Peter (1970). Demography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09612-6. Crouch, David (2006). Normans: The History of a Dynasty. Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1-85285-595-6. Crofton, Ian (2007). The Kings and Queens of England. Quercus. ISBN 1-84724-065-8. Crystal, David (2004). The Stories of English. The Overlook Press. ISBN 1-58567-601-2. Downes, Kerry (2007). Christopher Wren. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-921524-3. Eccleshare, Julia (2002). Beatrix Potter to Harry Potter. National Portrait Gallery. ISBN 1-85514-342-9. Else, David (2007). Inghilterra. EDT srl. ISBN 978-88-6040-136-6. Encyclopædia Britannica (2009). Encyclopædia Britannica. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 0-559-09589-9. Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). The New Encyclopædia Britannica. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-85229-787-4. Fafinski, Stefan (2007). English legal system. Pearson Education. ISBN 1-4058-2358-5. Foreman, Susan (2005). London: a musical gazetteer. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10402-2. Foster, Damon (1988). A Blake dictionary. UPNE. ISBN 0-87451-436-3. Fowler, Kenneth (1967). The Age of Plantagenet and Valois: The Struggle for Supremacy, 1328–1498. Putnam. ISBN 0-236-30832-7. Gallagher, Michael (2006). The United Kingdom Today. London: Franklin Watts. ISBN 978-0-7496-6488-6. Gearon, Liam (2002). Education in the United Kingdom. David Fulton. ISBN 1-85346-715-4. Goldberg, Jeremy (1996). "Introduction". In Mark Ormrod & P.G. Lindley. The Black Death in England. Stamford: Paul Watkins. ISBN 1-871615-56-9. Green, Tamara (2003). The Greek & Latin roots of English. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-1466-8. Hawkins-Dady, Mark (1996). Reader's guide to literature in English. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-884964-20-6. Heywood, Andrew (2007). Political Ideologies: An Introduction. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-230-52179-7. Higham, NJ (2002). King Arthur: myth-making and history. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21305-3. Kaufman, Will; Macpherson, Heidi (2005). Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-431-8. Kirby, D.P. (2000). The earliest English kings. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24210-X. Keary, Charles Francis (1882). Outlines of primitive belief among the Indo-European races. C Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-7905-4982-4. Kenny, Michael; English, Richard; Hayton, Richard (2008). Beyond the Constitution? Englishness in a post-devolved Britain. Institute for Public Policy Research. Koch, John (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-440-7. Lacy, Norris (1986). The Arthurian Encyclopedia. Garland Pub. ISBN 0-8240-8745-3. Lax, Roger (1989). The Great Song Thesaurus. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505408-3. Levine, Israel E. (1960). Conqueror of smallpox: Dr. Edward Jenner. Messner. ISBN 978-0-671-63888-7. Lowe, Roy (1971). The English school. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-6882-4. Lyon, Bryce Dale (1960). A constitutional and legal history of medieval England. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-393-95132-4. Major, John (2004). History in Quotations. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35387-6. Marden, Orison (2003). Home Lover's Library. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-5324-X. Massey, Gerald (2007). A Book of the Beginnings, Vol.1. Cosimo. ISBN 1-60206-829-1. McNeil, Robina; Nevell, Michael (2000). A Guide to the Industrial Archaeology of Greater Manchester. Association for Industrial Archaeology. ISBN 0-9528930-3-7. Molyneaux, George (2015). The Formation of the English Kingdom in the Tenth Century. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-871791-1. Norbrook, David (2000). Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78569-3. O'Hanlon, Ardal (2008). Global Airlines. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-6439-8. Oakes, Elizabeth H. (2002). A to Z of STS scientists. Facts on File Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-4606-5. Office for National Statistics (2000). Britain 2001: The Official Handbook of the United Kingdom. London: Stationery Office Books. ISBN 978-0-11-621278-8. Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006). Origins of the British. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1890-0. Pevsner, Nikolaus (1942). An outline of European architecture. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-14-061613-6. Pollard, A.J. (2004). Imagining Robin Hood. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22308-3. Rankov, Boris (1994). The Praetorian Guard. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-361-3. Redcliffe-Maud, John; Wood, Bruce (1974). English Local Government Reformed. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-885091-3. Reitan, Earl Aaron (2003). The Thatcher Revolution. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2203-2. Ripley, George (1869). The New American Cyclopædia. D. Appleton. Rogers, Pat (2001). The Oxford illustrated history of English literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285437-2. Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World. McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-2248-3. Rowse, Alfred (1971). Elizabethan Renaissance. Scribner. ISBN 0-684-12682-6. Saunders, Paul (1982). Edward Jenner, the Cheltenham years, 1795–1823. University Press of New England. ISBN 978-0-87451-215-1. Scruton, Roger (1982). A dictionary of political thought. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-33439-6. Singh, Udai (2009). Decentralized democratic governance in new millennium. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 81-8069-540-9. Stradling, R.A. (1993). The English musical Renaissance, 1860–1940. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-03493-0. UK Parliament (2007). Department for Transport annual report 2007. Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-10-170952-1. Underdown, David (2000). Start of Play: Cricket and Culture in Eighteenth-Century England. Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9330-8. Ward, Paul (2004). Britishness Since 1870. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-49472-1. Warner, Charles (1902). Library of the world's best literature, ancient and modern. International society. ISBN 1-60520-202-9. Watson, John (1985). English poetry of the Romantic period, 1789–1830. Longman. ISBN 0-582-49259-9. Webster, Frederick A.M. (1937). Our great public schools: their traditions, customs and games. London: Ward, Lock. OCLC 638146843. West, Anne (2003). Underachievement in schools. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24132-8. White, Peter (2002). Public transport. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-25772-7. Wilson, David; Game, Chris (2002). Local Government in the United Kingdom (3rd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-333-94859-0. Withington, Robert (2008). English Pageantry; An Historical Outline. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4086-8062-9. World Book (2007). The World Book Encyclopedia, Volume 6. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-7166-0102-8. Wright, Kevin J (2008). The Christian Travel Planner. Thomas Nelson Inc. ISBN 1-4016-0374-2. Young, Robert JC (2008). The Idea of English Ethnicity. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0129-5. Ziegler, Philip (2003). The Black Death (New ed.). Sutton: Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7509-3202-8. External links Wikisource has original text related to this article: England portal Page semi-protected Oak From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search "Oak tree" and "Quercus" redirect here. For other uses, see Oak (disambiguation), Oak Tree (disambiguation), and Quercus (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Oak Quercus robur.jpg Foliage and acorns of Quercus robur Scientific classification e Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Clade: Rosids Order: Fagales Family: Fagaceae Genus: Quercus L. Species See List of Quercus species An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus (/ˈkwɜːrkəs/;[1] Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus (stone oaks), as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta (silky oaks) and the Casuarinaceae (she-oaks). The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and North Africa. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, while Mexico has 160 species of which 109 are endemic. The second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species.[2] Oak: male flowers Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species; some have serrated leaves or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (in the form of catkins) and small female flowers.[3] The fruit is a nut called an acorn or oak nut borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule; each acorn contains one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on their species. The acorns and leaves contain tannic acid,[4] which helps to guard from fungi and insects.[5] The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group and instead are dispersed across the genus. Contents 1 Classification 1.1 Genus Quercus 1.2 Genus Cyclobalanopsis 2 Hybridization 3 Uses 4 Biodiversity and ecology 5 Genetics 6 Diseases and pests 7 Toxicity 8 Cultural significance 8.1 National symbol 8.1.1 Oaks as regional and state symbols 8.1.2 Political use 8.2 Religious 8.3 Historical 8.4 Famous oak trees 9 Historical note on Linnaean species 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links Classification The oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera (sometimes referred to as subgenera) and a number of sections: Genus Quercus Oak at Schönderling See also: List of Quercus species The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections: Sect. Quercus (synonyms Lepidobalanus and Leucobalanus), the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short; acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter; the inside of an acorn shell is hairless. The leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur. Sect. Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter; the inside of this acorn's shell is hairless. The section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Sect. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn's shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Sect. Protobalanus, the canyon live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States and northwest Mexico. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Sect. Lobatae (synonym Erythrobalanus), the red oaks of North America, Central America and northern South America. Styles long; acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. The actual nut is encased in a thin, clinging, papery skin. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with spiny bristles at the lobe. Genus Cyclobalanopsis Old oak tree on the shore of Lake Koluvere, Estonia. The ring-cupped oaks of eastern and southeastern Asia. Evergreen trees growing 10–40 m (33–131 ft) tall. They are distinct from subgenus Quercus in that they have acorns with distinctive cups bearing concrescent rings of scales; they commonly also have densely clustered acorns, though this does not apply to all of the species. IUCN, ITIS, Encyclopedia of Life and Flora of China treats Cyclobalanopsis as a distinct genus, but some taxonomists consider it a subgenus of Quercus. It contains about 150 species. Species of Cyclobalanopsis are common in the evergreen subtropical laurel forests which extend from southern Japan, southern Korea, and Taiwan across southern China and northern Indochina to the eastern Himalayas, in association with trees of genus Castanopsis and the laurel family (Lauraceae). Hybridization A hybrid white oak, possibly Quercus stellata × Q. muhlenbergii Interspecific hybridization is quite common among oaks but usually between species within the same section only and most common in the white oak group (subgenus Quercus, section Quercus; see List of Quercus species). Inter-section hybrids, except between species of sections Quercus and Mesobalanus, are unknown. Recent systematic studies appear to confirm a high tendency of Quercus species to hybridize because of a combination of factors. White oaks are unable to discriminate against pollination by other species in the same section. Because they are wind pollinated and they have weak internal barriers to hybridization, hybridization produces functional seeds and fertile hybrid offspring.[6] Ecological stresses, especially near habitat margins, can also cause a breakdown of mate recognition as well as a reduction of male function (pollen quantity and quality) in one parent species.[6][7] Frequent hybridization among oaks has consequences for oak populations around the world; most notably, hybridization has produced large populations of hybrids with copious amounts of introgression, and the evolution of new species.[8] Frequent hybridization and high levels of introgression have caused different species in the same populations to share up to 50% of their genetic information.[9] Having high rates of hybridization and introgression produces genetic data that often does not differentiate between two clearly morphologically distinct species, but instead differentiates populations.[10] Numerous hypotheses have been proposed to explain how oak species are able to remain morphologically and ecologically distinct with such high levels of gene flow, but the phenomenon is still largely a mystery to botanists. The Fagaceae, or beech family, to which the oaks belong, is a very slow evolving clade compared to other angiosperms,[11][12] and the patterns of hybridization and introgression in Quercus pose a great challenge to the concept of a species since a species is often defined as a group of “actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”[13] By this definition, many species of Quercus would be lumped together according to their geographic and ecological habitat, despite clear distinctions in morphology and, to a large extent, genetic data. Uses Heart of oak beams of the frame of Saint-Girons church in Monein, France Oak wood has a density of about 0.75 g/cm3 (0.43 oz/cu in) creating great strength and hardness. The wood is very resistant to insect and fungal attack because of its high tannin content. It also has very appealing grain markings, particularly when quartersawn. Oak planking was common on high status Viking longships in the 9th and 10th centuries. The wood was hewn from green logs, by axe and wedge, to produce radial planks, similar to quarter-sawn timber. Wide, quarter-sawn boards of oak have been prized since the Middle Ages for use in interior panelling of prestigious buildings such as the debating chamber of the House of Commons in London and in the construction of fine furniture. Oak wood, from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea, was used in Europe for the construction of ships, especially naval men of war,[14] until the 19th century, and was the principal timber used in the construction of European timber-framed buildings. Today oak wood is still commonly used for furniture making and flooring, timber frame buildings, and veneer production. Barrels in which wines, sherry, and spirits such as brandy, Irish whiskey, Scotch whisky and Bourbon whiskey are aged are made from European and American oak, with single barrel whiskey fetching a premium. The use of oak in wine can add many different dimensions to wine based on the type and style of the oak. Oak barrels, which may be charred before use, contribute to the colour, taste, and aroma of the contents, imparting a desirable oaky vanillin flavour to these drinks. The great dilemma for wine producers is to choose between French and American oakwoods. French oaks (Quercus robur, Q. petraea) give the wine greater refinement and are chosen for the best wines since they increase the price compared to those aged in American oak wood. American oak contributes greater texture and resistance to ageing, but produces more powerful wine bouquets. Oak wood chips are used for smoking fish, meat, cheeses,[15] and other foods. Sherry maturing in oak barrels Japanese oak is used in the making of professional drums from the manufacturer Yamaha Drums. The higher density of oak gives the drum a brighter and louder tone compared to traditional drum materials such as maple and birch. In hill states of India, besides fuelwood and timber, the local people use oak wood for making agricultural implements. The leaves are used as fodder during lean period and bedding for livestock.[16][17] A cross section of the trunk of a cork oak, Quercus suber The bark of the cork oak is used to produce wine stoppers (corks). This species grows in the Mediterranean Sea region, with Portugal, Spain, Algeria, and Morocco producing most of the world's supply. Of the North American oaks, the northern red oak is one of the most prized of the red oak group for lumber, much of which is marketed as red oak regardless of the species of origin. It is not good for outdoor use due to its open capillaries unless the wood is treated. If the wood is properly treated with preservatives, it will not rot as quickly as cured white oak heartwood. The closed cell structure of white oaks prevents them from absorbing preservatives. With northern red oak, one can blow air through an end grain piece 10 inches long to make bubbles come out in a glass of water. These openings give fungus easy access when the finish deteriorates. Shumard oak, a member of the red oak subgenus, provides timber which is described as "mechanically superior" to northern red oak. Cherrybark oak is another type of red oak which provides excellent timber. The standard for the lumber of the white oak group – all of which is marketed as white oak – is the Quercus alba. White oak is often used to make wine barrels. The wood of the deciduous pedunculate oak and sessile oak accounts for most of the European oak production, but evergreen species, such as Holm oak and cork oak also produce valuable timber. The bark of the white oak is dried and used in medical preparations. Oak bark is also rich in tannin, and is used by tanners for tanning leather. Acorns are used for making flour or roasted for acorn coffee. Oak forest in Estonia. Oak on sandy earth. Oak forest on the beach in Njivice, Croatia Oak galls were used for centuries as a main ingredient in iron gall ink, a kind of manuscript ink, harvested at a specific time of year.[citation needed] In Korea, oak bark is used to make shingles for traditional roof construction. Biodiversity and ecology Oaks are keystone species in a wide range of habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical rainforest. For example, oak trees are important components of hardwood forests, and certain species are particularly known to grow in associations with members of the Ericaceae in oak–heath forests.[18][19] A number of kinds of truffles, including the two well known varieties, the black Périgord truffle[20] and the white Piedmont truffle,[21] have symbiotic relationships with oak trees. Similarly many other mushrooms such as Ramaria flavosaponaria also associate with oaks.[22][23] The European pied flycatcher is an example of an animal species that often depends upon oak trees. Many species of oaks are under threat of extinction in the wild, largely due to land use changes, livestock grazing and unsustainable harvesting. For example, over the past 200 years, large areas of oak forest in the highlands of Mexico, Central America and the northern Andes have been cleared for coffee plantations and cattle ranching. There is a continuing threat to these forests from exploitation for timber, fuelwood and charcoal.[24] In the USA, entire oak ecosystems have declined due to a combination of factors still imperfectly known, but thought to include fire suppression, increased consumption of acorns by growing mammal populations, herbivory of seedlings, and introduced pests.[25] In a recent survey, 78 wild oak species have been identified as being in danger of extinction, from a global total of over 500 species.[26] The proportion under threat may be much higher in reality, as there is insufficient information about over 300 species, making it near impossible to form any judgement of their status. In the Himalayan region of India, oak forests are being invaded by pine forests due to the increase in temperature. The associated species of pine forest may cross frontiers and become new elements of the oak forests.[27] In eastern North America, rare species of oak trees include scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), and post oak (Quercus stellata).[28] The mature trees shed varying numbers of acorns annually. Scientists suggest that shedding excess numbers allows the oaks to satiate nut gathering species, improving the chances of germination. Every four to ten years, certain oak populations will synchronize to produce almost no acorns at all, only to rain them down excessively the following year, known as a "mast" year. The year preceding the mast year is thought to starve off the mammal populations feeding on the supply, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the overproduction in the mast year that follows.[29][30] This is necessary to the survival of any given oak species, as only one in 10,000 acorns results in an eventual tree.[31] Genetics Beginning November 1, 2011, a project began to sequence the entire oak genome. The goal of the project is to create a high resolution sequence of the Quercus robur genome, and to study genetic diversity by comparison of the genomes of different species.[32] Current research has compiled genomic data from many different sources and techniques to create a genome map with 89% coverage of the genome. The project is still in the process of annotating this genome.[33] Diseases and pests See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on oaks Oak powdery mildew on pedunculate oak Sudden oak death (Phytophthora ramorum) is a water mould that can kill oaks within just a few weeks. Oak wilt, caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum (a fungus closely related to Dutch elm disease), is also a lethal disease of some oaks, particularly the red oaks (the white oaks can be infected but generally live longer). Other dangers include wood-boring beetles, as well as root rot in older trees which may not be apparent on the outside, often being discovered only when the trees come down in a strong gale. Oak apples are galls on oaks made by the gall wasp. The female kermes scale causes galls to grow on kermes oak. Oaks are used as food plants by the larvae of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species such as the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, which can defoliate oak and other broadleaved tree species in North America.[34] A considerable number of galls are found on oak leaves, buds, flowers, roots, etc. Examples are oak artichoke gall, oak marble gall, oak apple gall, knopper gall, and spangle gall. A number of species of fungus cause powdery mildew on oak species. In Europe the species Erysiphe alphitoides is the most common cause.[35] A new and yet little understood disease of mature oaks, acute oak decline, has been reported in parts of the UK since 2009.[36] Oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea) has become a serious threat in the UK since 2006. The caterpillars of this species defoliate the trees, and are hazardous to human health; their bodies are covered with poisonous hairs which can cause rashes and respiratory problems.[37] In California, oaks are affected by the fungal disease Foamy bark canker. Toxicity The leaves and acorns of the oak tree are poisonous to cattle, horses, sheep, and goats in large amounts due to the toxin tannic acid, and cause kidney damage and gastroenteritis. Symptoms of poisoning include lack of appetite, depression, constipation, diarrhea (which may contain blood), blood in urine, and colic. The exception to livestock and oak toxicity is the domestic pig, which may be fed entirely on acorns in the right conditions, and has traditionally been pastured in oak woodlands (such as the Spanish dehesa and the English system of pannage) for hundreds of years. Acorns are also edible to humans, after leaching of the tannins.[38] Cultural significance Oak branches on the coat of arms of Estonia National symbol The oak is a common symbol of strength and endurance and has been chosen as the national tree of many countries. Already an ancient Germanic symbol (in the form of the Donar Oak, for instance), certainly since the early nineteenth century, it stands for the nation of Germany and oak branches are thus displayed on some German coins, both of the former Deutsche Mark and the current Euro currency.[39] In 2004 the Arbor Day Foundation[40] held a vote for the official National Tree of the United States of America. In November 2004, the United States Congress passed legislation designating the oak as America's National Tree.[41] Other countries have also designated the oak as their national tree including Bulgaria, Cyprus (Golden Oak), England, Estonia, France, Germany, Moldova, Jordan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Serbia, and Wales.[42] Oaks as regional and state symbols The oak is the emblem of County Londonderry in Northern Ireland, as a vast amount of the county was covered in forests of the tree until relatively recently. The name of the county comes from the city of Derry, which originally in Irish was known as Doire meaning oak. The Irish County Kildare derives its name from the town of Kildare which originally in Irish was Cill Dara meaning the Church of the Oak or Oak Church. Iowa designated the oak as its official state tree in 1961; and the White Oak is the state tree of Connecticut, Illinois and Maryland. The Northern Red Oak is the provincial tree of Prince Edward Island, as well as the state tree of New Jersey. The Live Oak is the state tree of Georgia, USA. The oak is a national symbol from the Basque Country, specially in the province of Biscay. The oak is a symbol of the East Bay of the San Francisco Bay Area; the coat-of-arms and flag of Oakland, California feature the oak and the logo of the East Bay Regional Park District is an oak leaf. The coat-of-arms of Vest-Agder, Norway, and Blekinge, Sweden, features oak trees. The coat-of-arms of the municipality Eigersund, Norway features an oak leaf. Oak leaves are traditionally an important part of German Army regalia.[citation needed] The Nazi party used the traditional German eagle, standing atop of a swastika inside a wreath of oak leaves. It is also known as the Iron Eagle. During the Third Reich of Nazi Germany, oak leaves were used for military valor decoration on the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross. They also symbolize rank in the United States Armed Forces. A gold oak leaf indicates an O-4 (Major or Lt. Commander), whereas a silver oak leaf indicates an O-5 (Lt. Colonel or Commander). Arrangements of oak leaves, acorns and sprigs indicate different branches of the United States Navy Staff corps officers.[43] Oak leaves are embroidered onto the covers (hats) worn by field grade officers and flag officers in the United States armed services. If a member of the United States Army or Air Force earns multiple awards of the same medal, then instead of wearing a ribbon or medal for each award, he or she wears one metal representation of an "oak leaf cluster" attached to the appropriate ribbon for each subsequent award.[44] Political use The oak tree is used as a symbol by a number of political parties. It is the symbol of Toryism (on account of the Royal Oak) and the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom,[45] and formerly of the Progressive Democrats in Ireland[46] and the Democrats of the Left in Italy. In the cultural arena, the oakleaf is the symbol of the National Trust (UK), The Woodland Trust, and The Royal Oak Foundation.[43] Religious Grīdnieku ancient oak in Rumbas parish, Latvia, girth 8.27m, 2015 In Greek mythology, the oak is the tree sacred to Zeus, king of the gods. In Zeus's oracle in Dodona, Epirus, the sacred oak was the centerpiece of the precinct, and the priests would divine the pronouncements of the god by interpreting the rustling of the oak's leaves.[47] In Baltic and Slavic mythology, the oak is the sacred tree of Latvian Pērkons, Lithuanian Perkūnas, Prussian Perkūns and Slavic Perun,[48] the god of thunder and one of the most important deities in the Baltic and Slavic pantheons. In Celtic polytheism, the name of the oak tree was part of the Proto-Celtic word for 'druid': *derwo-weyd- > *druwid- ; however, Proto-Celtic *derwo- (and *dru-) can also be adjectives for 'strong' and 'firm', so Ranko Matasovic interprets that *druwid- may mean 'strong knowledge'. As in other Indo-European faiths, Taranis, being a thunder god, was associated with the oak tree.[49] The Indo-Europeans worshiped the oak and connected it with a thunder or lightning god; "tree" and drus may also be cognate with "Druid," the Celtic priest to whom the oak was sacred. There has even been a study that shows that oaks are more likely to be struck by lightning than any other tree of the same height.[50] In Norse mythology, the oak was sacred to the thunder god, Thor. Thor's Oak was a sacred tree of the Germanic Chatti tribe. In the Bible, the oak tree at Shechem is the site where Jacob buries the foreign gods of his people (Gen. 35:4) . In addition, Joshua erects a stone under an oak tree as the first covenant of the Lord (Josh. 24.25–7). In Isaiah 61, the prophet refers to the Israelites as "Oaks of Righteousness." Absalom's long hair (2 Samuel 18:9) gets caught in an oak tree, and allows Joab to kill him. The badnjak is central tradition in Serbian Orthodox Church Christmas celebration where young and straight oak, is ceremonially felled early on the morning of Christmas Eve. In some traditions of Wicca, the Oak King is one of the two faces of the Sun God. He is born on Yule and rules from Ostara to Mabon.[citation needed] Historical Several singular oak trees, such as the Royal Oak in Britain and the Charter Oak in the United States, are of great historical or cultural importance; for a list of important oaks, see Individual oak trees. "The Proscribed Royalist, 1651", a famous painting by John Everett Millais, depicted a Royalist fleeing from Cromwell's forces and hidden in an oak. Millais painted the picture in Hayes, Kent, from a local oak tree that became known as the Millais Oak.[51][52] Approximately 50 km west of Toronto, Canada is the town of Oakville, ON, famous for its history as a shipbuilding port on Lake Ontario.[clarification needed] The city of Raleigh, N.C., is known as "The City of Oaks." The Jurupa Oak tree – a clonal colony of Quercus palmeria or Palmer’s oak found in Riverside County, California – is an estimated 13,000 years old.[53] Large groups of very old oak trees are rare[why?]. One of the oldest groups of oak trees, found in Poland, is about 480 years old, which was assessed by dendrochronological methods.[54] In the Roman Republic, a crown of oak leaves was given to those who had saved the life of a citizen in battle; it was called the "civic oak crown".[50] Famous oak trees Main article: List of notable trees Tamme-Lauri oak is the thickest and oldest tree in Estonia. The Big Oak, by Gustave Courbet (1843). The Emancipation Oak is designated one of the 10 Great Trees of the World by the National Geographic Society and is part of the National Historic Landmark district of Hampton University. The Ivenack Oak which is one of the largest trees in Europe is located in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany, and is approximately 800 years old.[55] The Bowthorpe Oak, located in Bourne, Lincolnshire, is thought to be 1,000 years old. It was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records and was filmed for a TV documentary for its astonishing longevity.[55] The Minchenden (or Chandos) Oak, in Southgate, London, is said to be the largest oak tree in England (already 27 feet or 8.2 meters in girth in the nineteenth century), and is perhaps 800 years old.[56] The Seven Sisters Oak is the largest certified southern live oak tree. Located in Mandeville, Louisiana, it is estimated to be up to 1,500 years old with a trunk that measures 38 ft (11.6 meters).[57][58] The Major Oak is an 800 to 1000-year-old tree located in Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. According to folklore, it was used by Robin Hood for shelter. Friendship Oak is a 500-year-old southern live oak located in Long Beach, Mississippi. The Crouch Oak is believed to have originated in the 11th Century and is located in Addlestone, Surrey. It is an important symbol of the town with many local businesses adopting its name. It used to mark the boundary of Windsor Great Park. Legend says that Queen Elizabeth I stopped by it and had a picnic. The Angel Oak is a southern live oak located in Angel Oak Park on John's Island near Charleston, South Carolina. The Angel Oak is estimated to be in excess of 400–500 years old, stands 66.5 ft (20.3 m) tall, and measures 28 ft (8.5 m) in circumference. The Kaiser's Oak, located at the village of Gommecourt in Artois, France, named in honour of Kaiser Wilhelm II, symbolically marked from late 1914 to April 1917 the furthest point in the West of the German Imperial Army during World War One. The Wye Oak in Maryland was the United States' largest white oak tree before it blew down in a storm in 2002, at an estimated age of 460 years. Historical note on Linnaean species Linnaeus described only five species of oak from eastern North America, based on general leaf form. These were white oak, Quercus alba; chestnut oak, Q. montana; red oak, Q. rubra; willow oak Q. phellos; and water oak, Q. nigra. Because he was dealing with confusing leaf forms, the Q. montana and Q. rubra specimens actually included mixed foliage of more than one species. See also List of Quercus species Paul Nash (artist) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search For other people named Paul Nash, see Paul Nash. Paul Nash Born 11 May 1889 Kensington, London, England Died 11 July 1946 (aged 57) Boscombe, Dorset, England Nationality British Education South-Western Polytechnic London County Council School of Photo-engraving and Lithography Slade School of Art Known for Painting, printmaking Movement Surrealism Spouse(s) Margaret Theodosia Odeh (m. 1914–1946, his death) Paul Nash (11 May 1889 – 11 July 1946) was a British surrealist painter and war artist, as well as a photographer, writer and designer of applied art. Nash was among the most important landscape artists of the first half of the twentieth century. He played a key role in the development of Modernism in English art. Born in London, Nash grew up in Buckinghamshire where he developed a love of the landscape. He entered the Slade School of Art but was poor at figure drawing and concentrated on landscape painting.[1] Nash found much inspiration in landscapes with elements of ancient history, such as burial mounds, Iron Age hill forts such as Wittenham Clumps and the standing stones at Avebury in Wiltshire. The artworks he produced during World War I are among the most iconic images of the conflict. After the war Nash continued to focus on landscape painting, originally in a formalized, decorative style but, throughout the 1930s, in an increasingly abstract and surreal manner.[2] In his paintings he often placed everyday objects into a landscape to give them a new identity and symbolism. During World War II, although sick with the asthmatic condition that would kill him, he produced two series of anthropomorphic depictions of aircraft, before producing a number of landscapes rich in symbolism with an intense mystical quality.[2] These have perhaps become among the best known works from the period. Nash was also a fine book illustrator, and also designed stage scenery, fabrics and posters.[3] He was the older brother of the artist John Nash.[3] Contents 1 Early life 2 World War I 2.1 Army officer 2.2 Official war artist – Belgium, 1917 2.3 Official war artist – England, 1918 2.4 The Menin Road 3 1920s 3.1 Dymchurch and Iden 3.2 Other media 4 1930s 4.1 Avebury 4.2 Swanage 5 World War Two 6 Final works 7 Death 8 Legacy and works on public display 9 Bibliography 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life Nash was the son of a successful barrister, William Harry Nash, and his wife Caroline Maude, the daughter of a Captain in the Royal Navy. He was born in Kensington and grew up in Earl's Court in West London, but in 1902 the family moved to Iver Heath in Buckinghamshire. It was hoped the move to the countryside would help Caroline Nash, who was increasingly showing symptoms of mental illness. The growing cost of Caroline Nash's treatment led to the house at Iver Heath being rented out while Paul and his father lived together in lodgings and his younger sister and brother went to boarding schools.[4] On Valentine's Day 1910, aged forty-nine, Caroline Nash died in a mental institution.[5] Paul Nash was originally intended for a career in the navy, following the path of his maternal grandfather, but despite additional training at a specialist school in Greenwich, he failed the Naval Entrance Examination and returned to finish his schooling at St Paul's School. Encouraged by a fellow student at St Paul's, Eric Kennington, Nash considered the possibility of a career as an artist.[4] After studying for a year at the South-Western Polytechnic in Chelsea, he then enrolled at the London County Council School of Photo-engraving and Lithography, in Bolt Court off Fleet Street, in the autumn of 1908. Nash spent two years studying at Bolt Court, where he began to write poetry and plays and where his work was spotted and praised by Selwyn Image. He was advised by his friend, the poet Gordon Bottomley, and by the artist William Rothenstein, that he should attend the Slade School of Art at University College, London. He enrolled in October 1910, though he later recorded that on his first meeting with the Professor of Drawing, Henry Tonks, 'It was evident he considered that neither the Slade, nor I, were likely to derive much benefit'.[6] The Slade was then opening its doors to a remarkable crop of young talents – what Tonks later described as the school's second and last 'Crisis of Brilliance'. Nash's fellow students included Ben Nicholson, Stanley Spencer, Mark Gertler, William Roberts, Dora Carrington, Christopher R. W. Nevinson and Edward Wadsworth. Nash struggled with figure drawing, and spent only a year at the school.[6] Nash had shows in 1912 and 1913, sometimes with his brother John, largely devoted to drawings and watercolours of brooding landscapes, influenced by the poetry of William Blake and the paintings of Samuel Palmer and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Two locations in particular featured in his landscape work at this time, the view from his father's house in Iver Heath and a pair of tree-topped hills in the Thames Valley known as the Wittenham Clumps. These were the first in a series of locations, which would eventually include Ypres, Dymchurch, the Romney Marshes, Avebury and Swanage, that would inspire Nash in his landscape paintings throughout his life.[5] By the summer of 1914 Nash was enjoying some success and during that year he worked briefly at the Omega Workshops under Roger Fry and also worked with him on restoring the Mantegna cartoons at Hampton Court Palace. He was elected to The London Group in 1914.[7] World War I Army officer Spring in the Trenches, Ridge Wood, 1917 (1918), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London On 10 September 1914, shortly after the start of World War I, Nash reluctantly enlisted as a private for home service in the Second Battalion, the Artists' Rifles, part of the 28th London Regiment of Territorials. Nash's duties, which included guard duty at the Tower of London, allowed him time to continue drawing and painting. In December 1914 Nash married Margaret Odeh, an Oxford-educated campaigner for Women's Suffrage, at St Martin-in-the-Fields, Trafalgar Square. Her father, Naser Odeh, had been the priest in charge of St Mary's mission and the pro-cathedral, Cairo. The couple had no children.[8] Nash began officer training in August 1916 and was sent to the Western Front in February 1917 as a second lieutenant in the Hampshire Regiment. He was based at St. Eloi on the Ypres Salient at a relatively quiet time and although the area did come under shelling, no major engagements took place while he was there. Whilst clearly aware of the destruction that had taken place there, he was delighted to see that, with spring arriving, the landscape was recovering from the damage inflicted on it.[9] However, on the night of 25 May 1917, Nash fell into a trench, broke a rib and, by 1 June, had been invalided back to London. A few days later the majority of his former unit were killed in an assault on a position known as Hill 60.[6] Nash considered himself lucky to be alive. While recuperating in London, Nash worked from sketches he had done at the Front to produce a series of twenty drawings, mostly in ink, chalk and watercolours, of the war. Whilst some of these pieces showed the influence of the Vorticist movement and their manifesto, the literary magazine BLAST, the majority concerned the spring landscape and were similar in tone to his pre-war work. Chaos Decoratif, for example, shows part of a trench and a shattered tree amid a scene of almost pastoral calm.[9] The collection was well received when exhibited in June that year at the Goupil Gallery. A further exhibition of these drawings was held in Birmingham in September 1917.[10] As a result of these exhibitions, Christopher Nevinson advised Nash to approach Charles Masterman, head of the government's War Propaganda Bureau, to apply to become an official war artist. Nash was with a reserve battalion near Portsmouth, preparing to return to France in a combat role, when he received word that his commission as a war artist had been approved.[6] Official war artist – Belgium, 1917 In November 1917 Nash returned to the Ypres Salient as a uniformed observer with a batman and chauffeur.[6] At this point the Third Battle of Ypres was three months old and Nash himself frequently came under shellfire after arriving in Flanders. The winter landscape he found was very different from the one he had last seen in spring. The system of ditches, small canals and dykes which usually drained the Ypres landscape had been all but destroyed by the constant shellfire. Months of incessant rain had led to widespread flooding and mile upon mile of deep mud. Nash was outraged at this desecration of nature. He believed the landscape was no longer capable of supporting life nor could it recover when spring came.[9] Nash quickly grew angry and disillusioned with the war and made this clear in letters written to his wife. One such written, after a pointless meeting at Brigade HQ, on 16 November 1917 stands out, I have just returned, last night from a visit to Brigade Headquarters up the line and I shall not forget it as long as I live. I have seen the most frightful nightmere of a country more conceived by Dante or Poe than by nature, unspeakable, utterly indescribable. In the fifteen drawings I have made I may give you some idea of its horror, but only being in it and of it can ever make you sensible of its dreadful nature and of what our men in France have to face. We all have a vague notion of the terrors of a battle, and can conjure up with the aid of some of the more inspired war correspondents and the pictures in the Daily Mirror some vision of battlefield; but no pen or drawing can convey this country—the normal setting of the battles taking place day and night, month after month. Evil and the incarnate fiend alone can be master of this war, and no glimmer of God's hand is seen anywhere. Sunset and sunrise are blasphemous, they are mockeries to man, only the black rain out of the bruised and swollen clouds all though the bitter black night is fit atmosphere in such a land. The rain drives on, the stinking mud becomes more evilly yellow, the shell holes fill up with green-white water, the roads and tracks are covered in inches of slime, the black dying trees ooze and sweat and the shells never cease. They alone plunge overhead, tearing away the rotting tree stumps, breaking the plank roads, striking down horses and mules, annihilating, maining, maddening, they plunge into the grave, and cast up on it the poor dead. It is unspeakable, godless, hopeless. I am no longer an artist interested and curious, I am a messenger who will bring back word from the men who are fighting to those who want the war to go on for ever. Feeble, inarticulate, will be my message, but it will have a bitter truth, and may it burn their lousy souls."[9][11][12] Nash's anger was a great creative stimulus which led him to produce up to a dozen drawings a day. He worked in a frenzy of activity and took great risks to get as close as possible to the frontline trenches.[13] Despite the dangers and hardship, when the opportunity came to extend his visit by a week and work for the Canadians in the Vimy sector, Nash jumped at the chance. He eventually returned to England on 7 December 1917.[4] Official war artist – England, 1918 Wire (1919), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London The Ypres Salient at Night (1918), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London In six weeks on the Western Front, Nash completed what he called "fifty drawings of muddy places". When he returned to England, he started to develop these drawings into finished pieces and began working flat-out to have enough pictures ready for a one-man show in May 1918. While in Flanders Nash had mostly worked in pen-and-ink, often over painted in watercolours, but in England he learnt, from Nevinson, to produce lithographs. The 1917 drawing Nightfall, Zillebecke District showing soldiers walking along a zig-zagging duckboard became the 1918 lithograph Rain. After the Battle shows a battlefield, deserted save for some corpses sinking into the mud.[9] The Landscape – Hill 60 shows fields of mud and shellholes with explosions filling the sky above. One of the largest and most powerful new drawings was Wire, originally titled Wire-The Hindenburg Line and again uses the destruction of nature, in the form of a tree trunk wrapped in barbed wire, akin to a crown of thorns, to represent the catastrophe of war.[14] Early in 1918, Nash began working in oils for the first time. The first oil painting he made was The Mule Track in which, amidst explosions from a bombardment, are the tiny figures of soldiers trying to stop their pack animals charging away along another zig-zagging duckboard. Switching to oils allowed Nash to make far greater use of colour and the explosions in The Mule Track contain yellow, orange and mustard shades.[9] The canvas The Ypres Salient at Night captures the disorientation caused by the changes in direction of the defensive trenches at the Front, which Nash would have been familiar with, and which was exacerbated at night by the constant explosion of shells and flares.[14][15] Whilst in France Nash had made a pen-and-ink drawing he called Sunrise: Inverness Copse. Inverness Copse was the site of heavy fighting in the summer of 1917 during the Battle of Langemarck, part of the Third Battle of Ypres and Nash depicts the aftermath of the fighting, showing a landscape consisting of mud and blasted trees illuminated by a pale yellow sun. Early in 1918, when Nash decided to produce a larger oil painting based on this drawing, whatever little hope that pale sun represented had vanished. The bitter title, We are Making a New World, clearly mocks the ambitions of the war but is also a more universal reference than the previous title and represents a scene of devastation that could be anywhere on the Western Front. There are no people in the picture nor any of the details of, for example, The Mule Track to distract from the broken tree stumps, shellholes and mounds of earth. The sun is a cold white orb and the brown clouds of the original drawing have become blood red. One modern critic, writing in 1994, likened it to a 'nuclear winter' whilst one of the first people to see it in 1918, Arthur Lee, the official censor responsible for the British war artists, thought it was a 'joke' at the expense of the public and the art establishment.[9][14][16] Sunrise, Inverness Copse (1917), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London We Are Making a New World (1918), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London The Mule Track (1918), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London These new works, alongside the 1917 pieces and some other works such as Mackerel Sky, were exhibited in Nash's solo exhibition entitled The Void of War at the Leicester Galleries in May 1918. This exhibition was critically acclaimed with most commentators focusing on how Nash had portrayed nature, in the form of devastated woods, fields and hillsides, as the innocent victim of the war.[12] The Menin Road Main article: The Menin Road (painting) The Menin Road (1919), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London In April 1918 Nash was commissioned, by the British War Memorials Committee to paint a battlefield scene for the Hall of Remembrance project. He chose to depict a section of the Ypres Salient known as 'Tower Hamlets' that had been devastated during the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge. Once his work for the Void of War exhibition was complete in June 1918, Nash started painting the huge canvas, now known as The Menin Road, which was almost 60 square feet (5.6 m2) in size, at Chalfont St Peter in Buckinghamshire using a herb-drying shed as his studio. He completed the piece in February 1919 in London.[17] The picture depicts a maze of flooded trenches and shell craters while tree stumps, devoid of any foliage, point towards a sky full of clouds and plumes of smoke bisected by shafts of sunlight resembling gun barrels. Two soldiers at the centre of the picture attempt to follow the now unrecognisable road itself but appear to be trapped by the landscape.[14][18] 1920s When the war ended Nash was determined to continue his career as an artist but struggled with periodic bouts of depression and money worries. Throughout 1919 and 1920 Nash lived in Buckinghamshire and in London where he made theatre designs for a play by J. M. Barrie. Along with several other artists, Nash became prominent in the Society of Wood Engravers and in 1920 was involved in its first exhibition.[19] He became close friends with Eric Fitch Daglish whom he educated in the art of wood engraving and as a result Daglish became a successful engraver.[19] From 1920 until 1923 Nash taught, on an occasional basis, at the Cornmarket School of Art in Oxford. Dymchurch and Iden In 1921, after visiting his sick father, Nash collapsed and, after a week during which he repeatedly lost consciousness, was diagnosed as suffering from 'emotional shock' arising from the war.[5] To aid his recovery, the Nashes moved to Dymchurch which they had first visited in 1919 and where he painted seascapes, the seawall and landscapes of Romney Marsh.[10] The seawall at Dymchurch became a key location in Nash's work.[20] The conflict between land and sea depicted in the seawall paintings at Dymchurch recalled elements of Nash's paintings on the Western Front and were also influenced by his grief at the death of his friend Claud Lovat Fraser in June 1921. In 1922, Nash produced Places, a volume of seven wood engravings for which he also designed the cover, cut the lettering and wrote the text. At this time he also began painting floral still-lifes as well as continuing his landscape paintings, most notably with Chilterns under Snow in 1923.[5] Throughout 1924 and 1925 Nash taught part-time at the Design School at the Royal College of Art, where his students included both Eric Ravilious and Edward Bawden. In 1924 he held a commercially successful exhibition at the Leicester Galleries. This allowed the Nashes to spend the winter near Nice and visit Florence and Pisa at the start of 1925 after which they moved home to Iden near Rye in Sussex. Iden and the Romney Marshes became the settings for a series of paintings by Nash, most notably Winter Sea painted in 1925 and reworked in 1937.[5] In 1927 Nash was elected to the London Artists' Association and in 1928 held another successful exhibition of his paintings at the Leicester Galleries whilst an exhibition of his wood-engravings was held at the Redfern Gallery the same year.[10] The Leicester Galleries exhibition was notable for showing Nash turning away from his popular landscapes and beginning to explore abstraction in his work.[10] This change in direction continued throughout 1929 and 1930 when Nash produced a number of innovative paintings, Landscape at Iden, with its seemingly unrelated objects placed beside each other amid strong architectural elements, showed the impression the 1928 London exhibition by the surrealist Giorgio de Chirico had made on Nash.[21] Northern Adventure and Nostalgic Landscape, St Pancras Station both paintings of St Pancras Station seen through a lattice work of abstract elements, derived from the frame of an advertising hoarding.[10] The paintings Coronilla (1929) and Opening (1931) both depict openings between spaces in an abstract and cubist manner through which trees or the sea can be seen. The earlier Lares is in a similar style.[22] Nash completed Dead Spring in February 1929, immediately after the death of his father. The painting shows a dying pot plant on a window still surrounded by a lattice of geometrical shapes which include some draughtsman's tools.[23] Like the painting Lares, Dead Spring is thought to show the influence on Nash of having seen the 1928 Giorgio de Chirico exhibition in London.[23] Other media Nash often worked in media other than paint. As well as two volumes of his own wood engravings, Places and Genesis, throughout the 1920s Nash produced highly regarded book illustrations for several authors, including Robert Graves and Siegfried Sassoon. Nash was one of the contributors of illustrations to the Subscriber's Edition of T. E. Lawrence's Seven pillars of wisdom, published in 1926.[10] In 1930, Nash produced the dust jacket design for Roads to Glory, a collection of World War I stories by Richard Aldington.[24] In 1921 Nash displayed textile designs at an exhibition at Heal's and in 1925 developed four fabric designs for the Footprints series sold by Modern Textiles in London. Later still, in 1933, Brain & Co in Stoke-on-Trent commissioned Nash and other artists to produce designs for their Foley China range which was showcased at the Modern Art for the Table exhibition at Harrods.[25] In 1931, Margaret Nash gave him a camera when he sailed to America to serve as a jury member at the Carnegie International Award in Pittsburgh. Nash became a prolific photographer and would often work from his own photographs alongside his preparatory sketches when painting a work.[26] By April 1928, Nash wanted to leave Iden but did not do so until after his father's death in February 1929, when he sold the family home in Iver Heath and bought a house in Rye. 1930s Nash's cover for the Radio Times' Christmas 1930 edition In 1930 Nash started working as an art critic for The Listener, and in his writings acknowledged the influence of the 1928 Giorgio de Chirico London exhibition and of the modernist works he had seen during a visit to Paris in 1930 at Léonce Rosenberg's gallery.[27] Nash became a pioneer of modernism in Britain, promoting the avant-garde European styles of abstraction and surrealism throughout the 1930s. In 1933 he co-founded the influential modern art movement Unit One with fellow artists Henry Moore, Barbara Hepworth, Ben Nicholson, Edward Wadsworth and the critic Herbert Read. It was a short-lived but important move towards the revitalisation of British art in the inter-war period.[28] Avebury When in 1931 he was invited to illustrate a book of his own choice, Nash choose Sir Thomas Browne's Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and The Garden of Cyrus, providing the publisher with a set of 30 illustrations to accompany Browne's discourses. For Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial Nash also produced six larger watercolours, including Mansions of the Dead, and three oil paintings on the book's themes of death and burial customs.[29] These became significant themes for Nash when in July 1933 he went to Marlborough on holiday and visited Silbury Hill and Avebury for the first time. This ancient landscape with its neolithic monuments and standing stones "excited and fascinated" Nash and stirred "his sensitiveness to magic and the sinister beauty of monsters" according to Ruth Clarke who had accompanied him to Marlborough.[10] Nash went on to paint the landscape at Avebury several times in different styles, most notably in his two 1934 paintings, Druid Landscape and Landscape of the Megaliths.[10] The 1935 painting Equivalents for the Megaliths stresses the mystery of the site by portraying it in an abstract manner rather than a more literal depiction.[30] Nash appears to have been unhappy with the restoration work, started in 1934, at Avebury by Alexander Keiller, seemingly preferring the previous wilder and more unkept appearance of the area.[31] Nash wanted to move to live in Wiltshire but instead he left Rye for London in November 1933 before the Nashes undertook a long trip to France, Gibraltar and north Africa. When they returned to England in June 1934, the Nashes rented a cottage on the Dorset coast near Swanage. Nash was asked by John Betjeman to write a book in the Shell Guides series. Nash accepted and undertook writing a guide to Dorset. Swanage Between 1934 and 1936 Nash lived near Swanage in Dorset, hoping the sea air would ease his asthma whilst he worked on the Shell Guide to Dorset. He produced a considerable number of paintings and photographs during this period, some of which he used in the guide book. The guide was published in 1935 and featured some peculiarities of landscape and architecture that are often overlooked.[32] Nash found Swanage with its diverse flora and fauna, fossils and geology to have certain Surrealist qualities. In a 1936 essay, entitled Swanage or Seaside Surrealism, he wrote that the place had something "of a dream image where things are so often incongruous and slightly frightening in their relation to time or place."[33] Whilst there Nash met the artist Eileen Agar. The two began a relationship, which lasted some years, and also collaborated on a number of works together. In Swanage, Nash produced some notable surrealist works such as Events on the Downs, a picture of a giant tennis ball and a tree trunk seemingly embarking on a journey together and, later, Landscape from a Dream, a cliff-top scene with a hawk and mirror.[34] For a collage of black and white photographs entitled Swanage, Nash depicts objects found in, or connected to, locations around Dorset within a surrealist landscape.[33] On Romany Marsh Nash found his first surrealist object, or Objet trouvé. This piece of wood retrieved from a stream was likened by Nash to a fine Henry Moore sculpture and was shown at the first International Surrealist Exhibition in 1936 under the title Marsh Personage.[5] By the time of the exhibition Nash had come to dislike Swanage and in mid-1936 moved to a large house in Hampstead. Here he wrote articles on "seaside surrealism", created collages and assemblages, began his autobiography and organised a large one-man show at the Redfern Gallery in April 1937. That summer he visited the site of the Uffington White Horse in Berkshire and shortly afterwards began work on Landscape from a Dream.[26] In 1939, shortly after World War II began, the Nashes left Hampstead and moved to Oxford.[35] World War Two The Messerschmidt in Windsor Great Park (1940), (Tate) Defence of Albion, collection of the Imperial War Museum, London Battle of Britain, collection of the Imperial War Museum, London At the start of World War Two Nash was appointed by the War Artists' Advisory Committee to a full-time salaried war artist post attached to the Royal Air Force and the Air Ministry. Nash was unpopular with the Air Ministry representative on the WAAC committee, partly because of the modernist nature of his work and partly because the RAF wanted the WAAC artists to concentrate on producing portraits of their pilots and aircrew.[36] Whilst still a salaried WAAC artist Nash produced two series of watercolours, Raiders and Aerial Creatures. Raiders, or Marching Against England, was a set of studies of crashed German aircraft set in English rural landscapes with titles such as Bomber in the Corn, The Messerschmidt in Windsor Great Park and Under the Cliff. Whilst the Air Ministry could appreciate the patriotic intent and propaganda value of those works, the Aerial Creatures series, with its anthropomorphic depictions of British aircraft, displeased the Air Ministry so much they insisted Nash's full-time contract was ended in December 1940. The Chairman of WAAC, Kenneth Clark was aghast at this development and in January 1941 the Committee agreed to put aside £500 to purchase works from Nash on the theme of aerial conflict.[37][38] Nash worked intermittently under this arrangement until 1944 to produce four paintings for WAAC. The first two of these were Totes Meer (Dead Sea) and The Battle of Britain. Totes Meer (Dead Sea) was submitted to WAAC in 1941 and shows a 'dead sea' of wrecked German plane wings and fuselages based on sketches, and photographs, made at the Metal and Produce Recovery Unit at Cowley near Oxford in 1940.[39] The painting recalls a series of bleak sea and coastal paintings Nash made in the 1930s. Although the aircraft dump at Cowley contained many British planes, Nash only depicted German aircraft because he wished to show the fate of the 'hundreds and hundreds of flying creatures which invaded these shores'. He used the German title for the picture as he wanted it included in a series of postcards of crashed German planes he suggested be dropped over the Reich as propaganda. To this end Nash even created a postcard of the painting with Hitler's head superimposed on the wrecked aircraft.[39] Kenneth Clark stated that Totes Meer was 'the best war picture so far I think' and is still considered among the most celebrated British paintings of World War II.[31][38] The Battle of Britain (1941) is an imaginative representation of an aerial battle in progress over a wide landscape of land and sea, suggesting the Thames Estuary and the English Channel.[40] The white vapour trails of the Allied aircraft form patterns resembling buds and petals and appear to be growing naturally from the land and clouds, in contrast to the rigid, formal ranks of the attacking forces. Clark recognised the allegorical nature of the work and wrote to Nash, "I think in this and Totes Meer you have discovered a new form of allegorical painting. It is impossible to paint great events without allegory... and you have discovered a way of making the symbols out of the events themselves."[31] After completing The Battle of Britain, Nash found himself creatively blocked and again sick with asthma. Whilst unable to paint he did produce a number of photographic collages which included symbols and motifs from previous works often alongside images of Hitler.[4] Nash submitted a series of these pieces, entitled Follow the Fuehrer, to the Ministry of Information for use as propaganda but they declined to use them.[17][37] When he did resume painting, Nash produced The Defence of Albion, which is considered the weakest of his four large WAAC paintings. Nash had great difficulties completing the painting which shows a Short Sunderland flying boat in the sea off Portland Bill. As he had only seen photographs of Sunderlands, and was too ill to go to the coast to view one, Nash wrote to Eric Ravilious, who had painted flying boats in Scotland, asking him to describe the effect of sunlight on the plane.[17] Battle of Germany (1944), collection of the Imperial War Museum, London Nash's final painting for WAAC was however an extraordinary, imagined scene of a bombing raid on a city.[41] Despite being given access to official reports and accounts from aircrews who had flown on raids to Germany, for the Battle of Germany, Nash adopted an unconventional abstract approach. Nash explained that it showed a city under attack with a pillar of smoke from burning buildings in the background and the white spheres of descending parachutes in the foreground. The pillar of smoke and the moon were as threatening to the city as the bombers, concealed within the red clouds, responsible for the explosions on the right side of the painting.[42] Whilst Kenneth Clark found the painting difficult to understand because of what he called the "different planes of reality in which it is painted",[17] he did recognize that it might herald one course that post-war art could take.[4] Final works From 1942 onwards, Nash often visited the artist Hilda Harrisson at her home, Sandlands on Boars Hill near Oxford, to convalesce after bouts of illness. From the garden at Sandlands, Nash had a view of the Wittenham Clumps, which he had first visited as a child and had painted both before World War I and again, as a background, in 1934 and 1935. He now painted a series of imaginative works of the Clumps under different aspects of the moon. Paintings such as Landscape of the Vernal Equinox (1943) and Landscape of the Moon's Last Phase (1944) show a mystical landscape rich in the symbolism of the changing seasons and of death and rebirth.[43][44] The completion of Battle of Germany in September 1944 brought Nash's public commitments to an end and he spent the remaining eighteen months of his life in, by his own words, "reclusive melancholy".[4] In these final months, Nash produced a series of paintings, including Flight of the Magnolia (1944), which he called 'Aerial Flowers' that combined his fascination with flying and his love of the works of Samuel Palmer.[45] Nash also returned to the influence of William Blake that had so affected his early art, for example in the series of gigantic sunflowers including Sunflower and Sun (1942), Solstice of the Sunflower (1945) and Eclipse of the Sunflower (1945), based on Blake's 1794 poem "Ah! Sun-flower".[46][47] Death During the final ten days of his life Nash returned to Dorset and visited Swanage, Corfe, Worth Matravers and Kimmeridge Bay.[33] Nash died in his sleep of heart failure, as a result of his long-term asthma, on 11 July 1946, at Boscombe in Hampshire (now Dorset) and was buried on 17 July, in the churchyard of St Mary the Virgin, Langley in Buckinghamshire (now Berkshire). The Egyptian stone carving of a hawk, that Nash had painted in Landscape from a Dream, was placed on his grave.[48] A memorial exhibition and concert for Nash, attended by the then Queen Elizabeth, was held at the Tate Gallery in March 1948.[49] Legacy and works on public display Works by Nash are held in the collections of the Aberdeen Art Gallery, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Beaverbrook Art Gallery, Bolton Art Gallery, Brighton & Hove Museums, Cleveland Museum of Art, Courtauld Institute of Art, Glynn Vivian Art Gallery, Harvard University Art Museums, Imperial War Museum, Manchester City Art Gallery, National Museums Liverpool, Tate Gallery, The Huntington Library, The Priseman Seabrook Collection, Whitworth Art Gallery, The Norfolk Museums Collection and Wichita Art Museum. 'Paul Nash', a major exhibition of his work at Tate Britain in London, ran from October 2016 until 5 March 2017,[50] thereafter moving to the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts in Norwich from April to August 2017.[51] Bibliography 1922: Places, - text and wood-engravings, 1924: Genesis, - a book of wood-engravings, 1932: Room and Book, - essays on contemporary design, 1935: Shell Guide to Dorset, with Archibald Russell, 1949: Outline, - a partial autobiography, first published posthumously in 1949 and re-issued in 2016.[52] References Stephen Farthing (Editor) (2006). 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die. Cassell Illustrated/Quintessence. ISBN 978-1-84403-563-2. Nikos Stangos (1985). The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Art and Artists. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20274-5. Ian Chilvers (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Art. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0 19 860476 9. Paul Gough (2014). Brothers in Arms: John and Paul Nash and the Aftermath of the Great War. Sansom and Company. ISBN 978-1-908326-52-2. David Boyd Haycock (2002). British Artists Paul Nash. Tate Publishing. ISBN 978-185437-436-3. David Boyd Haycock (2009). A Crisis of Brilliance: Five Young British Artists and the Great War. Old Street Publishing(London). ISBN 978-1-905847-84-6. David Redfern. The London Group: a history 1913 - 2013. p.38. Myfanwy Piper & Andrew Causey (2004). "Nash, Paul (1889–1946)". Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 31 October 2017. Richard Cork (1994). A Bitter Truth – Avant Garde Art and the Great War. Yale University Press & The Barbican Art Gallery. Andrew Causey (2013). Paul Nash Landscape and the Life of Objects. Lund Humphries. ISBN 978-1-84822-096-6. Paul Nash (1949). Outline: An Autobiography and Other Writings. Faber and Faber, London. pp. 1–271, 211. Paul J. Gough (2010). A Terrible Beauty: British Artists in the First World War. Sansom & Company (Bristol). ISBN 1-906593-00-0. Gordon Hughes & Philipp Bloom (Editors) (2014). Nothing but the Clouds Unchanged:Artists in World War 1. Getty Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60606-431-3. Art from the First World War. Imperial War Museum. 2008. ISBN 978-1-904897-98-9. Imperial War Museum. "The Ypres Salient at Night". Imperial War Museum Collections Search. Retrieved 21 February 2012. Ben Lewis (19 March 2010). "Private view: Paul Nash". Prospect. Retrieved 3 June 2014. Merion Harries & Susie Harries (1983). The War Artists, British Official War Art of the Twentieth Century. Michael Joseph, The Imperial War Museum & the Tate Gallery. ISBN 0 7181 2314 X. Imperial War Museum. "The Menin Road". Imperial War Museum Collections Search. Retrieved 28 May 2014. Horne, Alan. The Dictionary of British Book Illustrators: 162-163. Tate. "Paul Nash:Modern artist, ancient landscape:Room guide:Dymchurch". Tate. Retrieved 29 July 2014. Tate. "Catalogue entry for Landscape at Iden 1929". Tate. Retrieved 18 July 2014. Tate. "Catalogue entry, Lares". Tate. Retrieved 22 July 2014. Stefan van Raay, Frances Guy, Simon Martin & Andrew Churchill (2004). Modern British Art at Pallant House Gallery. Scala Publishers. ISBN 1857593316. Martin Salisbury (21 October 2017). "Cover stories: beautiful book-jacket designs - in pictures". The Observer. Retrieved 24 October 2017. Isabelle Anscombe (1981). OMEGA and after, Bloomsbury and the Decorative Arts. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27362-6. Michel Remy. Surrealism in Britain. Lund Humphries. ISBN 0 85331 825 5. Tate. "Display entry for Kinetic Feature". Tate. Retrieved 22 July 2014. The British Council. "Paul Nash". British Council. Archived from the original on 30 October 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2014. Tate. "Catalogue entry for Mansions of the Dead". Tate. Retrieved 5 August 2014. Tate. "Catalogue entry for Equivalents for the Megaliths 1935". Tate. Retrieved 17 June 2014. David Dimbleby (2005). A Picture of Britain. Tate Publishing. ISBN 1-85437-566-0. "Mixed Gallery of Shell Art Collection Images". nationalmotormuseum.org.uk. Retrieved 19 October 2013. Tate. "Catalogue entry for Swanage c.1936". Tate. Retrieved 17 June 2014. Jane Ure-Smith (5 March 2005). "From Swanage with love". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 June 2014. Oxford Civic Trust. "Paul Nash (1889-1946)". Oxfordshire Blue Plaques Scheme. Retrieved 5 August 2014. David Lee (18 January 1997). "Reaching for the sky". The Spectator. Retrieved 3 June 2014. Brain Foss (2007). War paint: Art, War, State and Identity in Britain, 1939-1945. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10890-3. Imperial War Museum. "War artist archive Paul Nash 1939-1945". Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 3 June 2014. History Trails Wars and Conflict (11 April 2005). "Art in War:Exploring a Painting". BBC. Retrieved 28 May 2014. Imperial War Museum. "The Battle of Britain by Paul Nash". Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 3 June 2014. Imperial War Museum. "Battle of Germany". Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 16 December 2014. Art from the Second World War. Imperial War Museum. 2007. ISBN 978-1-904897-66-8. Tate. "Catalogue entry for Wittenham Clumps c.1943-4". Tate. Retrieved 18 July 2014. Tate. "Paul Nash:Modern artist, ancient landscape:Room guide: The Wittenham Clumps". Tate. Retrieved 7 August 2014. Debra Lennard (January 2014). "Summary entry for Flight of the Magnolia 1944". Tate. Retrieved 18 July 2014. Jason Whittaker (11 May 2010). "Surreal sunflowers – Paul Nash and William Blake". Zoamorphosis The Blake 2.0 Blog. Seddon, Paul Nash, (1948), p.74 Tate. "Catalogue entry for Landscape from a Dream". Tate. Retrieved 17 June 2014. Brian Sewell (8 April 2010). "Magic melancholy from Paul Nash". The London Evening Standard. Retrieved 11 December 2014. Adrian Searle (25 October 2016). "Paul Nash review - pain, wonder and inescapable menace". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 November 2016. [1] Rachel Cooke (4 October 2016). "Paul Nash: - the artist in words and pictures". The Observer. Retrieved 13 November 2016. Further reading Causey, Andrew Paul Nash: A Catalogue Raisonee (1980. Oxford University Press) ISBN 978-1-85437-436-3. Colvin, Claire, Paul Nash book designs : a Minories touring exhibition (1982. The Minories, Colchester) Eates, Margot, Paul Nash : the master of the image, 1889 - 1946 (1973. John Murray, London) Haycock, David Boyd, Paul Nash, Watercolours 1910-1946: Another Life, Another World (2014 Piano Nobile Gallery, London) Jenkins, David Fraser (ed.), Paul Nash: The Elements (2010. Dulwich Picture Gallery, London) Postan, Alexander, The complete graphic work of Paul Nash (1973. Secker and Warburg, London) Russell, James, Paul Nash in Pictures: Landscape and Dream (2011. Mainstone Press, Norwich) ISBN 978-0955277771. Seddon, Richard, "Paul Nash" Studio 135 (600), March 1948, p. 74 [2] External links 87 Painting(s) by or after Paul Nash at the Art UK site Paul Nash's Work - Imperial War Museum Tate Archive: Negatives of 1267 photographs taken by Paul Nash 1930–46 Find out more on Wikipedia's Sister projects Media from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteData from Wikidata Authority control Edit this at Wikidata WorldCat Identities BNF: cb12038703z (data) GND: 118785699 ISNI: 0000 0001 1068 2154 LCCN: n50047335 PIC: 27245 RKD: 58874 SNAC: w6xs5v3q SUDOC: 050706853 ULAN: 500032079 VIAF: 66484321 Categories: 1889 births1946 deaths20th-century British printmakers20th-century English paintersAcademics of the Royal College of ArtAlumni of Chelsea College of Art & DesignAlumni of the Slade School of ArtArtists from LondonArtists' Rifles soldiersBritish Army personnel of World War IBritish war artistsEnglish illustratorsEnglish landscape paintersEnglish male paintersEnglish wood engraversMembers of Unit OneModern paintersPeople educated at St Paul's School, LondonRoyal Hampshire Regiment officersWorld War I artistsWorld War II artists Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Deutsch Español Français 日本語 Português Русский Türkçe 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 17 July 2018, at 10:40 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki References Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995, Leisure Arts, pp. 606–607, ISBN 0376038519. Hogan, C. Michael (2012) Oak Archived 23 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. ed. Arthur Dawson. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC Conrad, Jim. "Oak Flowers" Archived 4 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. backyardnature.com. 2011-12-12. Retrieved 2013-11-03. Tull, Delena (1 January 1999). Edible and Useful Plants of Texas and the Southwest: A Practical Guide. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292781641. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Hipp, Andrew (2004). Oak Trees Inside and Out. Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. p. 4. Williams, Joseph H.; Boecklen, William J.; Howard, Daniel J. (2001). "Reproductive processes in two oak (Quercus) contact zones with different levels of hybridisation". Heredity. 87 (6): 680–690. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00968.x. Arnold, M. L. (1997). Natural Hybridization and Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509974-5. Conte, L.; Cotti, C.; Cristofolini, G. (2007). "Molecular evidence for hybrid origin of Quercus crenata Lam. (Fagaceae) from Q-cerris L. and Q-suber L". Plant Biosystems. 141 (2): 181–193. doi:10.1080/11263500701401463. Gomory, D.; Schmidtova, J. (2007). "Extent of nuclear genome sharing among white oak species (Quercus L. subgen. Lepidobalanus (Endl.) Oerst.) in Slovakia estimated by allozymes". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (3–4): 253–264. doi:10.1007/s00606-007-0535-0. Kelleher, C. T.; Hodkinson, T. R.; Douglas, G. C.; Kelly, D. L. (2005). "Species distinction in Irish populations of Quercus petraea and Q. robur: Morphological versus molecular analyses". Annals of Botany. 96 (7): 1237–1246. doi:10.1093/aob/mci275. PMC 4247074 Freely accessible. PMID 16199484. Frascaria, N.; Maggia, L.; Michaud, M.; Bousquet, J. (1993). "The RBCL Gene Sequence from Chestnut Indicates a Slow Rate of Evolution in the Fagaceae". Genome. 36 (4): 668–671. doi:10.1139/g93-089. PMID 8405983. Manos, P. S.; Stanford, A. M. (2001). "The historical biogeography of Fagaceae: Tracking the tertiary history of temperate and subtropical forests of the Northern Hemisphere". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 162 (Suppl. 6): S77–S93. doi:10.1086/323280. Raven, Peter H.; Johnson, George B.; Losos, Jonathan B.; Singer, Susan R. (2005). Biology (Seventh ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-111182-4. Baugh, Daniel A. (1965). British Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole. Princeton University Press. p. 242. OCLC 610026758. Cheese. swaledalecheese.co.uk Kala, C.P. (2004). Studies on the indigenous knowledge, practices and traditional uses of forest products by human societies in Uttarakhand state of India. GBPIHED, Almora, India Kala, C.P. (2010). Medicinal Plants of Uttarakhand: Diversity Livelihood and Conservation. BioTech Books, Delhi, ISBN 8176222097. The Natural Communities of Virginia Classification of Ecological Community Groups (Version 2.3), Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 2010 Archived 15 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine.. Dcr.virginia.gov. Retrieved on 2011-12-10. Schafale, M. P. and A. S. Weakley. 1990. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina: third approximation. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation. "Truffle Glossary: Black Truffles". thenibble.com. 1 July 2010. Archived from the original on 19 April 2010. Retrieved 1 July 2010. "Truffle Glossary: White Truffles". thenibble.com. 1 July 2010. Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 1 July 2010. Nirschl, Rick. "Mushrooms of the Oak Openings" (PDF). Toledo Naturalists' Association. Toledo Naturalists' Association. p. 4. Retrieved 19 July 2018. Petersen, Ronald H. (November 1985). "Notes on Clavarioid Fungi. XX. New Taxa and Distributional Records in Clavulina and Ramaria". Mycologia (PDF). Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 77 (6): 903–919. doi:10.2307/3793302. ISSN 0027-5514. JSTOR 3793302. OCLC 7377077277. Kappelle, M. (2006). "Neotropical montane oak forests: overview and outlook", pp 449–467 in: Kappelle, M. (ed.). Ecology and conservation of neotropical montane oak forests. Ecological Studies No. 185. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, doi:10.1007/3-540-28909-7_34 ISBN 978-3-540-28908-1. Lorimer, C.G. (2003) Editorial: The decline of oak forests Archived 17 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. American Institute of Biological Sciences. Oldfield, S. & Eastwood, A. (2007) The Red List of Oaks Flora & Fauna International (FFI) and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) ISBN 978-1-903703-25-0 Kala, C.P. (2012). Biodiversity, communities and climate change. Teri Publications, New Delhi, ISBN 817993442X. Carpenter, Paul (1990). Plants in the Landscape. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 73. ISBN 0716718081. "Up to your ankles in acorns? Here's why". The Mercury News. 13 October 2007. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017. "What's causing an abundance of acorns this year?". The Mercury News. 6 October 2016. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017. Curwen Press From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search Curwen Press Status Defunct Founded 1863 Founder John Curwen Country of origin United Kingdom Publication types sheet music, books, posters, artist's prints The Curwen Press was founded by the Reverend John Curwen in 1863 to publish sheet music for the "tonic sol-fa" system.[1] The Press was based in Plaistow, Newham, east London, England, where Curwen was a pastor from 1844.[2] The Curwen Press, under the management of Harold Curwen, John's grandson, was at the vanguard of the design revolution that saw expression in British printing in the early 20th century.[3] Many well-known graphic artists, including Eric Ravilious, Edward Bawden, Claud Lovat Fraser, Paul Nash and Barnett Freedman worked with Curwen.[4] The Press's output included books, posters and published ephemera. In 1977, the Tate Galley held an exhibition called Artists at Curwen: A Celebration of the Gift of Artists' Prints from the Curwen Studio. The sheet music division became independent in the 1930 and is now an imprint of Music Sales Group.[5] Curwen Press closed in 1984; The Curwen Studio survives as an independent studio.[6] References Art & Print:the Curwen Story; Alan Powers; Tate Publishing;2008 Art & Print:the Curwen Story; Alan Powers; Tate Publishing;2008; p11 Design:Harold Curwen & Oliver Simon, The Curwen Press;Webb & Skipwith;Antique Collectors Club;p15 Artists at Curwen:Pat Gilmour: Tate Publications:London: 1977 Music Publishing History External links http://www.thecurwenstudio.co.uk/ The Curwen Studio] Oliver Simon at the Curwen Press: a bibliographical handlist of their book production from 1919 to 1955 Stub icon This publishing-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Categories: Book publishing companies of the United KingdomPublishing companies established in 1863Sheet music publishing companiesBritish companies established in 1863Music companies of the United KingdomPublishing stubs Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 21 January 2018, at 18:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Waymer, Jim (3 December 2016). "That's nuts:Acorn onslaught hits Florida". Florida Today. Melbourne, Florida. pp. 1A, 11A. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016. "Quercus Portal". Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016. Plomion, C., Aury, J.-M., Amselem, J., Alaeitabar, T., Barbe, V., Belser, C., Bergès, H., Bodénès, C., Boudet, N., Boury, C., Canaguier, A., Couloux, A., Da Silva, C., Duplessis, S., Ehrenmann, F., Estrada-Mairey, B., Fouteau, S., Francillonne, N., Gaspin, C., Guichard, C., Klopp, C., Labadie, K., Lalanne, C., Le Clainche, I., Leplé, J.-C., Le Provost, G., Leroy, T., Lesur, I., Martin, F., Mercier, J., Michotey, C., Murat, F., Salin, F., Steinbach, D., Faivre-Rampant, P., Wincker, P., Salse, J., Quesneville, H. and Kremer, A. (2016), Decoding the oak genome: public release of sequence data, assembly, annotation and publication strategies. Mol Ecol Resour, 16: 254–265. doi:10.1111/1755-0998.12425 "Trees: Oak Insects and Diseases: Gypsy Moth". TreeHelp.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010. Mougou, A.; Dutech, C.; Desprez-Loustau, M. -L. (2008). "New insights into the identity and origin of the causal agent of oak powdery mildew in Europe". Forest Pathology. 38 (4): 275. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0329.2008.00544.x. Kinver, Mark (28 April 2010). "Oak disease 'threatens landscape'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 April 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2010. "Invasion of toxic moths". The Northern Echo. July 10, 2012. Bainbridge, D. A. (12–14 November 1986), Use of acorns for food in California: past, present and future, San Luis Obispo, CA.: Symposium on Multiple-use Management of California's Hardwoods, archived from the original on 27 October 2010 Schierz, Kai Uwe (2004). "Von Bonifatius bis Beuys, oder: Vom Umgang mit heiligen Eichen". In Hardy Eidam; Marina Moritz; Gerd-Rainer Riedel; Kai-Uwe Schierz. Bonifatius: Heidenopfer, Christuskreuz, Eichenkult (in German). Stadtverwaltung Erfurt. pp. 139–45. "Trees – Arbor Day Foundation". Arborday.org. Archived from the original on 28 April 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010. "Oak Trees". arborday.org. Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010. "Oak as a Symbol". Venables Oak. Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012. "Political or Symbolic". Extended Definition: oak. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012. "Army Regulation 670-1 | Wear of appurtenances | Section 29.12 Page 278". ar670.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018. Pickles, Eric. "The Conservative Party". Conservatives.com. Archived from the original on 29 April 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010. Coalition Government 1989 To 1992. progressivedemocrats.ie Frazer, James George (1922). The Golden Bough. Chapter XV: The Worship of the Oak. Archived 21 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. "Ąžuolas paprastasis". Zolininkas.lt (in Lithuanian). 21 February 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2018. Taylor, John W. (September 1979). "Tree Worship" Archived 17 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine., Mankind Quarterly, pp. 79–142. Oak. A Dictionary of Literary Symbols. Cambridge. Millais, J.G. (1899) Life and Letters of Sir John Everett Millais, vol. 1, p. 166, London : Methuen. Arborecology, containing a photograph of the Millais oak Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine.. arborecology.co.uk Yong, Ed. "The 13,000-year old tree that survives by cloning itself". www.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016. Ufnalski K. The oldest groups of oak trees in Poland. Proceedings of EuroDendro 2008 "The long history of wood utilization" News of Forest History Nr. V (39)/2008:83–84 Bermosa, Nobert. "Famous Oak Trees in the World". Archived from the original on 17 August 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2012. "Geograph:: Minchenden Oak, Garden of Remembrance,... (C) Christine Matthews". Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016. Seven Sisters Oak Archived 11 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. americanforests.org "Seven Sisters Oak". 100 Oaks Project. 4 December 2009. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Bibliography Byfield, Liz (1990) An oak tree, Collins book bus, London : Collins Educational, ISBN 0-00-313526-8 Philips, Roger. Trees of North America and Europe, Random House, Inc., New York ISBN 0-394-50259-0, 1979. Logan, William B. (2005) Oak : the frame of civilization, New York ; London : W.W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-04773-3 Paterson, R.T. (1993) Use of trees by livestock, 5: Quercus, Chatham : Natural Resources Institute, ISBN 0-85954-365-X Royston, Angela (2000) Life cycle of an oak tree, Heinemann first library, Oxford : Heinemann Library, ISBN 0-431-08391-6 Savage, Stephen (1994) Oak tree, Observing nature series, Hove : Wayland, ISBN 0-7502-1196-2 Tansley, Arthur G., Sir (1952) Oaks and oak woods, Field study books, London : Methuen. Żukow-Karczewski, Marek (1988) Dąb – król polskich drzew (Oak – the king of the Polish trees), AURA (A Monthly for the protection and shaping of human environment), 9, 20–21. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quercus. Wikispecies has information related to Quercus Flora of China – Cyclobalanopsis Oak diseases Flora Europaea: Quercus Oaks from Bialowieza Forest Common Oaks of Florida Oaks of the world The Global Trees Campaign The Red List of Oaks and Global Survey of Threatened Quercus Latvia – the land of oaks Eichhorn, Markus (May 2010). "Oak – A Very English Tree". Test Tube. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham. vte Sources of tannins vte National symbols of the United States vte Woodworking Taxon identifiers Wikidata: Q12004 Wikispecies: Quercus APDB: 194255 EoL: 32233 EPPO: 1QUEG FNA: 127839 FoC: 127839 Fossilworks: 54594 GBIF: 2877951 GRIN: 10203 iNaturalist: 47851 IPNI: 13507-1 IRMNG: 1022836 ITIS: 19276 NBN: NHMSYS0000462211 NCBI: 3511 NZOR: 328c1599-a74a-472b-939b-7347bbbeb819 PLANTS: QUERC POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325819-2 Tropicos: 40021776 VASCAN: 1609 Authority control Edit this at Wikidata BNF: cb12089056w (data) GND: 4151140-2 LCCN: sh85093565 NARA: 10663895 Categories: QuercusQuercus taxa by common namesFagaceaeWood Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Languages বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Español हिन्दी Македонски മലയാളം ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் 中文 115 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 July 2018, at 14:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Find more about England at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity English Heritage – National body protecting English heritage Natural England – Wildlife and the natural world of England VisitEngland – English Tourist Board BBC News – England – News items from BBC News relating to England GOV.UK – Website of the British Government Geographic data related to England at OpenStreetMap vte England articles England Articles related to England Authority control Edit this at Wikidata WorldCat Identities BNF: cb11930575r (data) GND: 4014770-8 ISNI: 0000 0001 2293 4507 LCCN: n82068148 NARA: 10044298 SUDOC: 027215148 VIAF: 142995804 Categories: EnglandEnglish-speaking countries and territoriesGreat BritainIsland countriesUnited Kingdom by countryGermanic countries and territoriesChristian states Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikivoyage Languages বাংলা हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी ଓଡ଼ିଆ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 192 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 July 2018, at 04:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki vte London landmarks vte Areas of London vte European Union Capital cities of the member states of the European Union Other articles related to London Authority control Edit this at Wikidata WorldCat Identities BNE: XX450868 BNF: cb119861367 (data) GND: 4074335-4 HDS: 6594 LCCN: n79005665 NARA: 10045656 NDL: 00629494 NLA: 35311229 SUDOC: 027922669 VIAF: 261467287 Categories: LondonBritish capitalsCapitals in EuropeGreater LondonPort cities and towns in EnglandStaple portsSouthern EnglandUniversity towns in the United Kingdom1st-century establishments in Roman BritainPopulated places established in the 1st century Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikivoyage Languages বাংলা ગુજરાતી हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 231 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 July 2018, at 18:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Rectangle Rectangle Geometry Vector.svg Rectangle Type quadrilateral, parallelogram, orthotope Edges and vertices 4 Schläfli symbol { } × { } Coxeter diagram CDel node 1.pngCDel 2.pngCDel node 1.png Symmetry group Dihedral (D2), [2], (*22), order 4 Dual polygon rhombus Properties convex, isogonal, cyclic Opposite angles and sides are congruent In Euclidean plane geometry, a rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles. It can also be defined as an equiangular quadrilateral, since equiangular means that all of its angles are equal (360°/4 = 90°). It can also be defined as a parallelogram containing a right angle. A rectangle with four sides of equal length is a square. The term oblong is occasionally used to refer to a non-square rectangle.[1][2][3] A rectangle with vertices ABCD would be denoted as Rectanglen.PNG ABCD. The word rectangle comes from the Latin rectangulus, which is a combination of rectus (as an adjective, right, proper) and angulus (angle). A crossed rectangle is a crossed (self-intersecting) quadrilateral which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals.[4] It is a special case of an antiparallelogram, and its angles are not right angles. Other geometries, such as spherical, elliptic, and hyperbolic, have so-called rectangles with opposite sides equal in length and equal angles that are not right angles. Rectangles are involved in many tiling problems, such as tiling the plane by rectangles or tiling a rectangle by polygons. Contents 1 Characterizations 2 Classification 2.1 Traditional hierarchy 2.2 Alternative hierarchy 3 Properties 3.1 Symmetry 3.2 Rectangle-rhombus duality 3.3 Miscellaneous 4 Formulae 5 Theorems 6 Crossed rectangles 7 Other rectangles 8 Tessellations 9 Squared, perfect, and other tiled rectangles 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Characterizations A convex quadrilateral is a rectangle if and only if it is any one of the following:[5][6] a parallelogram with at least one right angle a parallelogram with diagonals of equal length a parallelogram ABCD where triangles ABD and DCA are congruent an equiangular quadrilateral a quadrilateral with four right angles a convex quadrilateral with successive sides a, b, c, d whose area is {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{4}}(a+c)(b+d)} \tfrac{1}{4}(a+c)(b+d).[7]:fn.1 a convex quadrilateral with successive sides a, b, c, d whose area is {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {(a^{2}+c^{2})(b^{2}+d^{2})}}.} \tfrac{1}{2} \sqrt{(a^2+c^2)(b^2+d^2)}.[7] Classification A rectangle is a special case of both parallelogram and trapezoid. A square is a special case of a rectangle. Traditional hierarchy A rectangle is a special case of a parallelogram in which each pair of adjacent sides is perpendicular. A parallelogram is a special case of a trapezium (known as a trapezoid in North America) in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. A trapezium is a convex quadrilateral which has at least one pair of parallel opposite sides. A convex quadrilateral is Simple: The boundary does not cross itself. Star-shaped: The whole interior is visible from a single point, without crossing any edge. Alternative hierarchy De Villiers defines a rectangle more generally as any quadrilateral with axes of symmetry through each pair of opposite sides.[8] This definition includes both right-angled rectangles and crossed rectangles. Each has an axis of symmetry parallel to and equidistant from a pair of opposite sides, and another which is the perpendicular bisector of those sides, but, in the case of the crossed rectangle, the first axis is not an axis of symmetry for either side that it bisects. Quadrilaterals with two axes of symmetry, each through a pair of opposite sides, belong to the larger class of quadrilaterals with at least one axis of symmetry through a pair of opposite sides. These quadrilaterals comprise isosceles trapezia and crossed isosceles trapezia (crossed quadrilaterals with the same vertex arrangement as isosceles trapezia). Properties Symmetry A rectangle is cyclic: all corners lie on a single circle. It is equiangular: all its corner angles are equal (each of 90 degrees). It is isogonal or vertex-transitive: all corners lie within the same symmetry orbit. It has two lines of reflectional symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2 (through 180°). Rectangle-rhombus duality The dual polygon of a rectangle is a rhombus, as shown in the table below.[9] Rectangle Rhombus All angles are equal. All sides are equal. Alternate sides are equal. Alternate angles are equal. Its centre is equidistant from its vertices, hence it has a circumcircle. Its centre is equidistant from its sides, hence it has an incircle. Two axes of symmetry bisect opposite sides. Two axes of symmetry bisect opposite angles. Diagonals are equal in length. Diagonals intersect at equal angles. The figure formed by joining, in order, the midpoints of the sides of a rectangle is a rhombus and vice versa. Miscellaneous The two diagonals are equal in length and bisect each other. Every quadrilateral with both these properties is a rectangle. A rectangle is rectilinear: its sides meet at right angles. A rectangle in the plane can be defined by five independent degrees of freedom consisting, for example, of three for position (comprising two of translation and one of rotation), one for shape (aspect ratio), and one for overall size (area). Two rectangles, neither of which will fit inside the other, are said to be incomparable. Formulae The formula for the perimeter of a rectangle The area of a rectangle is the product of the length and width. If a rectangle has length {\displaystyle \ell } \ell and width {\displaystyle w} w it has area {\displaystyle A=\ell w\,} A = \ell w\,, it has perimeter {\displaystyle P=2\ell +2w=2(\ell +w)\,} P = 2\ell + 2w = 2(\ell + w)\,, each diagonal has length {\displaystyle d={\sqrt {\ell ^{2}+w^{2}}}} d=\sqrt{\ell^2 + w^2}, and when {\displaystyle \ell =w\,} \ell = w\,, the rectangle is a square. Theorems The isoperimetric theorem for rectangles states that among all rectangles of a given perimeter, the square has the largest area. The midpoints of the sides of any quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals form a rectangle. A parallelogram with equal diagonals is a rectangle. The Japanese theorem for cyclic quadrilaterals[10] states that the incentres of the four triangles determined by the vertices of a cyclic quadrilateral taken three at a time form a rectangle. The British flag theorem states that with vertices denoted A, B, C, and D, for any point P on the same plane of a rectangle:[11] {\displaystyle \displaystyle (AP)^{2}+(CP)^{2}=(BP)^{2}+(DP)^{2}.} \displaystyle (AP)^2 + (CP)^2 = (BP)^2 + (DP)^2. For every convex body C in the plane, we can inscribe a rectangle r in C such that a homothetic copy R of r is circumscribed about C and the positive homothety ratio is at most 2 and {\displaystyle 0.5{\text{ × Area}}(R)\leq {\text{Area}}(C)\leq 2{\text{ × Area}}(r)} 0.5{\text{ × Area}}(R)\leq {\text{Area}}(C)\leq 2{\text{ × Area}}(r).[12] Crossed rectangles A crossed (self-intersecting) quadrilateral consists of two opposite sides of a non-self-intersecting quadrilateral along with the two diagonals. Similarly, a crossed rectangle is a crossed quadrilateral which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals. It has the same vertex arrangement as the rectangle. It appears as two identical triangles with a common vertex, but the geometric intersection is not considered a vertex. A crossed quadrilateral is sometimes likened to a bow tie or butterfly. A three-dimensional rectangular wire frame that is twisted can take the shape of a bow tie. A crossed rectangle is sometimes called an "angular eight". The interior of a crossed rectangle can have a polygon density of ±1 in each triangle, dependent upon the winding orientation as clockwise or counterclockwise. A crossed rectangle is not equiangular. The sum of its interior angles (two acute and two reflex), as with any crossed quadrilateral, is 720°.[13] A rectangle and a crossed rectangle are quadrilaterals with the following properties in common: Opposite sides are equal in length. The two diagonals are equal in length. It has two lines of reflectional symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2 (through 180°). Crossed rectangles.png Other rectangles A saddle rectangle has 4 nonplanar vertices, alternated from vertices of a cuboid, with a unique minimal surface interior defined as a linear combination of the four vertices, creating a saddle surface. This example shows 4 blue edges of the rectangle, and two green diagonals, all being diagonal of the cuboid rectangular faces. In spherical geometry, a spherical rectangle is a figure whose four edges are great circle arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length. The surface of a sphere in Euclidean solid geometry is a non-Euclidean surface in the sense of elliptic geometry. Spherical geometry is the simplest form of elliptic geometry. In elliptic geometry, an elliptic rectangle is a figure in the elliptic plane whose four edges are elliptic arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length. In hyperbolic geometry, a hyperbolic rectangle is a figure in the hyperbolic plane whose four edges are hyperbolic arcs which meet at equal angles less than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length. Tessellations The rectangle is used in many periodic tessellation patterns, in brickwork, for example, these tilings: Stacked bond.png Stacked bond Wallpaper group-cmm-1.jpg Running bond Wallpaper group-p4g-1.jpg Basket weave Basketweave bond.svg Basket weave Herringbone bond.svg Herringbone pattern Squared, perfect, and other tiled rectangles A rectangle tiled by squares, rectangles, or triangles is said to be a "squared", "rectangled", or "triangulated" (or "triangled") rectangle respectively. The tiled rectangle is perfect[14][15] if the tiles are similar and finite in number and no two tiles are the same size. If two such tiles are the same size, the tiling is imperfect. In a perfect (or imperfect) triangled rectangle the triangles must be right triangles. A rectangle has commensurable sides if and only if it is tileable by a finite number of unequal squares.[14][16] The same is true if the tiles are unequal isosceles right triangles. The tilings of rectangles by other tiles which have attracted the most attention are those by congruent non-rectangular polyominoes, allowing all rotations and reflections. There are also tilings by congruent polyaboloes. See also Cuboid Golden rectangle Hyperrectangle Superellipse (includes a rectangle with rounded corners) References "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-14. Retrieved 2013-06-20. Definition of Oblong. Mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2011-11-13. Oblong – Geometry – Math Dictionary. Icoachmath.com. Retrieved 2011-11-13. Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald; Longuet-Higgins, M.S.; Miller, J.C.P. (1954). "Uniform polyhedra". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences. The Royal Society. 246 (916): 401–450. doi:10.1098/rsta.1954.0003. ISSN 0080-4614. JSTOR 91532. MR 0062446. Zalman Usiskin and Jennifer Griffin, "The Classification of Quadrilaterals. A Study of Definition", Information Age Publishing, 2008, pp. 34–36 ISBN 1-59311-695-0. Owen Byer; Felix Lazebnik; Deirdre L. Smeltzer (19 August 2010). Methods for Euclidean Geometry. MAA. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-0-88385-763-2. Retrieved 2011-11-13. Josefsson Martin (2013). "Five Proofs of an Area Characterization of Rectangles" (PDF). Forum Geometricorum. 13: 17–21. An Extended Classification of Quadrilaterals (An excerpt from De Villiers, M. 1996. Some Adventures in Euclidean Geometry. University of Durban-Westville.) de Villiers, Michael, "Generalizing Van Aubel Using Duality", Mathematics Magazine 73 (4), Oct. 2000, pp. 303-307. Cyclic Quadrilateral Incentre-Rectangle with interactive animation illustrating a rectangle that becomes a 'crossed rectangle', making a good case for regarding a 'crossed rectangle' as a type of rectangle. Hall, Leon M. & Robert P. Roe (1998). "An Unexpected Maximum in a Family of Rectangles" (PDF). Mathematics Magazine. 71 (4): 285–291. JSTOR 2690700. Lassak, M. (1993). "Approximation of convex bodies by rectangles". Geometriae Dedicata. 47: 111. doi:10.1007/BF01263495. Stars: A Second Look. (PDF). Retrieved 2011-11-13. R.L. Brooks, C.A.B. Smith, A.H. Stone and W.T. Tutte (1940). "The dissection of rectangles into squares". Duke Math. J. 7 (1): 312–340. doi:10.1215/S0012-7094-40-00718-9. J.D. Skinner II, C.A.B. Smith and W.T. Tutte (November 2000). "On the Dissection of Rectangles into Right-Angled Isosceles Triangles". Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B. 80 (2): 277–319. doi:10.1006/jctb.2000.1987. R. Sprague (1940). "Ũber die Zerlegung von Rechtecken in lauter verschiedene Quadrate". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 182: 60–64. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rectangles. Weisstein, Eric W. "Rectangle". MathWorld. Definition and properties of a rectangle with interactive animation. Area of a rectangle with interactive animation. Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4240913-5 Categories: QuadrilateralsElementary shapes Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Languages অসমীয়া বাংলা हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 98 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 May 2018, at 15:28 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Opposite sides are equal in length. The two diagonals are equal in length. It has two lines of reflectional symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2 (through 180°). It exists in the vertex figure of a uniform star polyhedra, the tetrahemihexahedron. Graphs 3-simplex (3D) The K4 complete graph is often drawn as a square with all 6 possible edges connected, hence appearing as a square with both diagonals drawn. This graph also represents an orthographic projection of the 4 vertices and 6 edges of the regular 3-simplex (tetrahedron). See also icon Geometry portal icon Mathematics portal Cube Pythagorean theorem Square lattice Squircle Unit square References W., Weisstein, Eric. "Square". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2017-12-12. Zalman Usiskin and Jennifer Griffin, "The Classification of Quadrilaterals. A Study of Definition", Information Age Publishing, 2008, p. 59, ISBN 1-59311-695-0. "Problem Set 1.3". jwilson.coe.uga.edu. Retrieved 2017-12-12. Josefsson, Martin, "Properties of equidiagonal quadrilaterals" Forum Geometricorum, 14 (2014), 129-144. "Maths is Fun - Can't Find It (404)". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2017-12-12. Chakerian, G.D. "A Distorted View of Geometry." Ch. 7 in Mathematical Plums (R. Honsberger, editor). Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America, 1979: 147. 1999, Martin Lundsgaard Hansen, thats IT (c). "Vagn Lundsgaard Hansen". www2.mat.dtu.dk. Retrieved 2017-12-12. "Geometry classes, Problem 331. Square, Point on the Inscribed Circle, Tangency Points. Math teacher Master Degree. College, SAT Prep. Elearning, Online math tutor, LMS". gogeometry.com. Retrieved 2017-12-12. Park, Poo-Sung. "Regular polytope distances", Forum Geometricorum 16, 2016, 227-232. http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2016volume16/FG201627.pdf John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, (2008) The Symmetries of Things, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 (Chapter 20, Generalized Schaefli symbols, Types of symmetry of a polygon pp. 275-278) Wells, Christopher J. "Quadrilaterals". www.technologyuk.net. Retrieved 2017-12-12. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Squares (geometry). Animated course (Construction, Circumference, Area) Weisstein, Eric W. "Square". MathWorld. Definition and properties of a square With interactive applet Animated applet illustrating the area of a square vte Polygons vte Fundamental convex regular and uniform polytopes in dimensions 2–10 Family An Bn I2(p) / Dn E6 / E7 / E8 / F4 / G2 Hn Regular polygon Triangle Square p-gon Hexagon Pentagon Uniform polyhedron Tetrahedron Octahedron • Cube Demicube Dodecahedron • Icosahedron Uniform 4-polytope 5-cell 16-cell • Tesseract Demitesseract 24-cell 120-cell • 600-cell Uniform 5-polytope 5-simplex 5-orthoplex • 5-cube 5-demicube Uniform 6-polytope 6-simplex 6-orthoplex • 6-cube 6-demicube 122 • 221 Uniform 7-polytope 7-simplex 7-orthoplex • 7-cube 7-demicube 132 • 231 • 321 Uniform 8-polytope 8-simplex 8-orthoplex • 8-cube 8-demicube 142 • 241 • 421 Uniform 9-polytope 9-simplex 9-orthoplex • 9-cube 9-demicube Uniform 10-polytope 10-simplex 10-orthoplex • 10-cube 10-demicube Uniform n-polytope n-simplex n-orthoplex • n-cube n-demicube 1k2 • 2k1 • k21 n-pentagonal polytope Topics: Polytope families • Regular polytope • List of regular polytopes and compounds Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4129044-6 Categories: Elementary shapesQuadrilaterals4 (number)Constructible polygons Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Languages অসমীয়া বাংলা ગુજરાતી हिन्दी മലയാളം मराठी ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் اردو 120 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2017, at 12:34 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki For example: The peaks of a 3D polyhedron or plane tiling are its 0-faces or vertices. The peaks of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 1-faces or edges. The peaks of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 2-faces or simply faces. See also Face lattice References Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (Eleventh ed.). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. 2004. Matoušek, Jiří (2002), Lectures in Discrete Geometry, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 212, Springer, 5.3 Faces of a Convex Polytope, p. 86. Cromwell, Peter R. (1999), Polyhedra, Cambridge University Press, p. 13. Grünbaum, Branko (2003), Convex Polytopes, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 221 (2nd ed.), Springer, p. 17. Ziegler, Günter M. (1995), Lectures on Polytopes, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 152, Springer, Definition 2.1, p. 51. Matoušek (2002) and Ziegler (1995) use a slightly different but equivalent definition, which amounts to intersecting P with either a hyperplane disjoint from the interior of P or the whole space. N.W. Johnson: Geometries and Transformations, (2018) ISBN 978-1-107-10340-5 Chapter 11: Finite symmetry groups, 11.1 Polytopes and Honeycombs, p.225 Matoušek (2002), p. 87; Grünbaum (2003), p. 27; Ziegler (1995), p. 17. Matoušek (2002), p. 87; Ziegler (1995), p. 71. External links Weisstein, Eric W. "Face". MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W. "Facet". MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W. "Side". MathWorld. Categories: Elementary geometryConvex geometryPolyhedra Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français 한국어 日本語 Português తెలుగు 中文 18 more Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2018, at 21:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Howard, J. Michael; Darcy Howard (Illustrator) (1998). "Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems". Bob's Rock Shop. Retrieved 2008-04-20. Krassmann, Thomas (2005–2008). "The Giant Crystal Project". Krassmann. Retrieved 2008-04-20. Various authors (2007). "Teaching Pamphlets". Commission on Crystallographic Teaching. Retrieved 2008-04-20. Various authors (2004). "Crystal Lattice Structures:Index by Space Group". Retrieved 2016-12-03. Various authors (2010). "Crystallography". Spanish National Research Council, Department of Crystallography. Retrieved 2010-01-08. Authority control Edit this at Wikidata BNE: XX526709 BNF: cb11941210s (data) GND: 4033209-3 NDL: 00565650 vte Patterns in nature Patterns Crack Dune Foam Meander Phyllotaxis Soap bubble Symmetry in crystals Quasicrystals in flowers in biology Tessellation Vortex street Wave Widmanstätten pattern Yemen Chameleon (cropped).jpg Causes Pattern formation Biology Natural selection Camouflage Mimicry Sexual selection Mathematics Chaos theory Fractal Logarithmic spiral Physics Crystal Fluid dynamics Plateau's laws Self-organization People Plato Pythagoras Empedocles Fibonacci Liber Abaci Adolf Zeising Ernst Haeckel Joseph Plateau Wilson Bentley D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson On Growth and Form Alan Turing The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis Aristid Lindenmayer Benoît Mandelbrot How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension Related Pattern recognition Emergence Mathematics and art Categories: Crystals Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages বাংলা ગુજરાતી हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் اردو 81 more Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2018, at 12:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Amphiboles have great variability in chemistry, described variously as a "mineralogical garbage can" or a "mineralogical shark swimming a sea of elements". The backbone of the amphiboles is the [Si8O22]12−; it is balanced by cations in three possible positions, although the third position is not always used, and one element can occupy both remaining ones. Finally, the amphiboles are usually hydrated, that is, they have a hydroxyl group ([OH]−), although it can be replaced by a fluoride, a chloride, or an oxide ion.[109] Because of the variable chemistry, there are over 80 species of amphibole, although variations, as in the pyroxenes, most commonly involve mixtures of Ca2+, Fe2+ and Mg2+.[107] Several amphibole mineral species can have an asbestiform crystal habit. These asbestos minerals form long, thin, flexible, and strong fibres, which are electrical insulators, chemically inert and heat-resistant; as such, they have several applications, especially in construction materials. However, asbestos are known carcinogens, and cause various other illnesses, such as asbestosis; amphibole asbestos (anthophyllite, tremolite, actinolite, grunerite, and riebeckite) are considered more dangerous than chrysotile serpentine asbestos.[110] Cyclosilicates An example of elbaite, a species of tourmaline, with distinctive colour banding. Cyclosilicates, or ring silicates, have a ratio of silicon to oxygen of 1:3. Six-member rings are most common, with a base structure of [Si6O18]12−; examples include the tourmaline group and beryl. Other ring structures exist, with 3, 4, 8, 9, 12 having been described.[111] Cyclosilicates tend to be strong, with elongated, striated crystals.[112] Tourmalines have a very complex chemistry that can be described by a general formula XY3Z6(BO3)3T6O18V3W. The T6O18 is the basic ring structure, where T is usually Si4+, but substitutable by Al3+ or B3+. Tourmalines can be subgrouped by the occupancy of the X site, and from there further subdivided by the chemistry of the W site. The Y and Z sites can accommodate a variety of cations, especially various transition metals; this variability in structural transition metal content gives the tourmaline group greater variability in colour. Other cyclosilicates include beryl, Al2Be3Si6O18, whose varieties include the gemstones emerald (green) and aquamarine (bluish). Cordierite is structurally similar to beryl, and is a common metamorphic mineral.[113] Sorosilicates Epidote often has a distinctive pistachio-green colour. Sorosilicates, also termed disilicates, have tetrahedron-tetrahedron bonding at one oxygen, which results in a 2:7 ratio of silicon to oxygen. The resultant common structural element is the [Si2O7]6− group. The most common disilicates by far are members of the epidote group. Epidotes are found in variety of geologic settings, ranging from mid-ocean ridge to granites to metapelites. Epidotes are built around the structure [(SiO4)(Si2O7)]10− structure; for example, the mineral species epidote has calcium, aluminium, and ferric iron to charge balance: Ca2Al2(Fe3+, Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH). The presence of iron as Fe3+ and Fe2+ helps understand oxygen fugacity, which in turn is a significant factor in petrogenesis.[114] Other examples of sorosilicates include lawsonite, a metamorphic mineral forming in the blueschist facies (subduction zone setting with low temperature and high pressure), vesuvianite, which takes up a significant amount of calcium in its chemical structure.[114][115] Orthosilicates Black andradite, an end-member of the orthosilicate garnet group. Orthosilicates consist of isolated tetrahedra that are charge-balanced by other cations.[116] Also termed nesosilicates, this type of silicate has a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:4 (e.g. SiO4). Typical orthosilicates tend to form blocky equant crystals, and are fairly hard.[117] Several rock-forming minerals are part of this subclass, such as the aluminosilicates, the olivine group, and the garnet group. The aluminosilicates –bkyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite, all Al2SiO5 – are structurally composed of one [SiO4]4− tetrahedron, and one Al3+ in octahedral coordination. The remaining Al3+ can be in six-fold coordination (kyanite), five-fold (andalusite) or four-fold (sillimanite); which mineral forms in a given environment is depend on pressure and temperature conditions. In the olivine structure, the main olivine series of (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 consist of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite. Both iron and magnesium are in octahedral by oxygen. Other mineral species having this structure exist, such as tephroite, Mn2SiO4.[118] The garnet group has a general formula of X3Y2(SiO4)3, where X is a large eight-fold coordinated cation, and Y is a smaller six-fold coordinated cation. There are six ideal endmembers of garnet, split into two group. The pyralspite garnets have Al3+ in the Y position: pyrope (Mg3Al2(SiO4)3), almandine (Fe3Al2(SiO4)3), and spessartine (Mn3Al2(SiO4)3). The ugrandite garnets have Ca2+ in the X position: uvarovite (Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3), grossular (Ca3Al2(SiO4)3) and andradite (Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3). While there are two subgroups of garnet, solid solutions exist between all six end-members.[116] Other orthosilicates include zircon, staurolite, and topaz. Zircon (ZrSiO4) is useful in geochronology as the Zr4+ can be substituted by U6+; furthermore, because of its very resistant structure, it is difficult to reset it as a chronometer. Staurolite is a common metamorphic intermediate-grade index mineral. It has a particularly complicated crystal structure that was only fully described in 1986. Topaz (Al2SiO4(F, OH)2, often found in granitic pegmatites associated with tourmaline, is a common gemstone mineral.[119] Non-silicates Native elements Main article: Native element minerals Native gold. Rare specimen of stout crystals growing off of a central stalk, size 3.7 x 1.1 x 0.4 cm, from Venezuela. Native elements are those that are not chemically bonded to other elements. This mineral group includes native metals, semi-metals, and non-metals, and various alloys and solid solutions. The metals are held together by metallic bonding, which confers distinctive physical properties such as their shiny metallic lustre, ductility and malleability, and electrical conductivity. Native elements are subdivided into groups by their structure or chemical attributes. The gold group, with a cubic close-packed structure, includes metals such as gold, silver, and copper. The platinum group is similar in structure to the gold group. The iron-nickel group is characterized by several iron-nickel alloy species. Two examples are kamacite and taenite, which are found in iron meteorites; these species differ by the amount of Ni in the alloy; kamacite has less than 5–7% nickel and is a variety of native iron, whereas the nickel content of taenite ranges from 7–37%. Arsenic group minerals consist of semi-metals, which have only some metallic traits; for example, they lack the malleability of metals. Native carbon occurs in two allotropes, graphite and diamond; the latter forms at very high pressure in the mantle, which gives it a much stronger structure than graphite.[120] Sulfides Main article: Sulfide minerals Red cinnabar (HgS), a mercury ore, on dolomite. The sulfide minerals are chemical compounds of one or more metals or semimetals with a sulfur; tellurium, arsenic, or selenium can substitute for the sulfur. Sulfides tend to be soft, brittle minerals with a high specific gravity. Many powdered sulfides, such as pyrite, have a sulfurous smell when powdered. Sulfides are susceptible to weathering, and many readily dissolve in water; these dissolved minerals can be later redeposited, which creates enriched secondary ore deposits.[121] Sulfides are classified by the ratio of the metal or semimetal to the sulfur, such as M:S equal to 2:1, or 1:1.[122] Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores; examples include sphalerite (ZnS), an ore of zinc, galena (PbS), an ore of lead, cinnabar (HgS), an ore of mercury, and molybdenite (MoS2, an ore of molybdenum.[123] Pyrite (FeS2), is the most commonly occurring sulfide, and can be found in most geological environments. It is not, however, an ore of iron, but can be instead oxidized to produce sulfuric acid.[124] Related to the sulfides are the rare sulfosalts, in which a metallic element is bonded to sulfur and a semimetal such as antimony, arsenic, or bismuth. Like the sulfides, sulfosalts are typically soft, heavy, and brittle minerals.[125] Oxides Main article: Oxide minerals Oxide minerals are divided into three categories: simple oxides, hydroxides, and multiple oxides. Simple oxides are characterized by O2− as the main anion and primarily ionic bonding. They can be further subdivided by the ratio of oxygen to the cations. The periclase group consists of minerals with a 1:1 ratio. Oxides with a 2:1 ratio include cuprite (Cu2O) and water ice. Corundum group minerals have a 2:3 ratio, and includes minerals such as corundum (Al2O3), and hematite (Fe2O3). Rutile group minerals have a ratio of 1:2; the eponymous species, rutile (TiO2) is the chief ore of titanium; other examples include cassiterite (SnO2; ore of tin), and pyrolusite (MnO2; ore of manganese).[126][127] In hydroxides, the dominant anion is the hydroxyl ion, OH−. Bauxites are the chief aluminium ore, and are a heterogeneous mixture of the hydroxide minerals diaspore, gibbsite, and bohmite; they form in areas with a very high rate of chemical weathering (mainly tropical conditions).[128] Finally, multiple oxides are compounds of two metals with oxygen. A major group within this class are the spinels, with a general formula of X2+Y3+2O4. Examples of species include spinel (MgAl2O4), chromite (FeCr2O4), and magnetite (Fe3O4). The latter is readily distinguishable by its strong magnetism, which occurs as it has iron in two oxidation states (Fe2+Fe3+2O4), which makes it a multiple oxide instead of a single oxide.[129] Halides Main article: Halide minerals Pink cubic halite (NaCl; halide class) crystals on a nahcolite matrix (NaHCO3; a carbonate, and mineral form of sodium bicarbonate, used as baking soda). The halide minerals are compounds in which a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, iodine, or bromine) is the main anion. These minerals tend to be soft, weak, brittle, and water-soluble. Common examples of halides include halite (NaCl, table salt), sylvite (KCl), fluorite (CaF2). Halite and sylvite commonly form as evaporites, and can be dominant minerals in chemical sedimentary rocks. Cryolite, Na3AlF6, is a key mineral in the extraction of aluminium from bauxites; however, as the only significant occurrence at Ivittuut, Greenland, in a granitic pegmatite, was depleted, synthetic cryolite can be made from fluorite.[130] Carbonates Main article: Carbonate minerals The carbonate minerals are those in which the main anionic group is carbonate, [CO3]2−. Carbonates tend to be brittle, many have rhombohedral cleavage, and all react with acid.[131] Due to the last characteristic, field geologists often carry dilute hydrochloric acid to distinguish carbonates from non-carbonates. The reaction of acid with carbonates, most commonly found as the polymorph calcite and aragonite (CaCO3), relates to the dissolution and precipitation of the mineral, which is a key in the formation of limestone caves, features within them such as stalactite and stalagmites, and karst landforms. Carbonates are most often formed as biogenic or chemical sediments in marine environments. The carbonate group is structurally a triangle, where a central C4+ cation is surrounded by three O2− anions; different groups of minerals form from different arrangements of these triangles.[132] The most common carbonate mineral is calcite, which is the primary constituent of sedimentary limestone and metamorphic marble. Calcite, CaCO3, can have a high magnesium impurity. Under high-Mg conditions, its polymorph aragonite will form instead; the marine geochemistry in this regard can be described as an aragonite or calcite sea, depending on which mineral preferentially forms. Dolomite is a double carbonate, with the formula CaMg(CO3)2. Secondary dolomitization of limestone is common, in which calcite or aragonite are converted to dolomite; this reaction increases pore space (the unit cell volume of dolomite is 88% that of calcite), which can create a reservoir for oil and gas. These two mineral species are members of eponymous mineral groups: the calcite group includes carbonates with the general formula XCO3, and the dolomite group constitutes minerals with the general formula XY(CO3)2.[133] Sulfates Main article: Sulfate minerals Gypsum desert rose The sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, [SO4]2−. They tend to be transparent to translucent, soft, and many are fragile.[134] Sulfate minerals commonly form as evaporites, where they precipitate out of evaporating saline waters. Sulfates can also be found in hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides,[135] or as oxidation products of sulfides.[136] Sulfates can be subdivided into anhydrous and hydrous minerals. The most common hydrous sulfate by far is gypsum, CaSO4⋅2H2O. It forms as an evaporite, and is associated with other evaporites such as calcite and halite; if it incorporates sand grains as it crystallizes, gypsum can form desert roses. Gypsum has very low thermal conductivity and maintains a low temperature when heated as it loses that heat by dehydrating; as such, gypsum is used as an insulator in materials such as plaster and drywall. The anhydrous equivalent of gypsum is anhydrite; it can form directly from seawater in highly arid conditions. The barite group has the general formula XSO4, where the X is a large 12-coordinated cation. Examples include barite (BaSO4), celestine (SrSO4), and anglesite (PbSO4); anhydrite is not part of the barite group, as the smaller Ca2+ is only in eight-fold coordination.[137] Phosphates Main article: Phosphate minerals The phosphate minerals are characterized by the tetrahedral [PO4]3− unit, although the structure can be generalized, and phosphorus is replaced by antimony, arsenic, or vanadium. The most common phosphate is the apatite group; common species within this group are fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F), chlorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3Cl) and hydroxylapatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)). Minerals in this group are the main crystalline constituents of teeth and bones in vertebrates. The relatively abundant monazite group has a general structure of ATO4, where T is phosphorus or arsenic, and A is often a rare-earth element (REE). Monazite is important in two ways: first, as a REE "sink", it can sufficiently concentrate these elements to become an ore; secondly, monazite group elements can incorporate relatively large amounts of uranium and thorium, which can be used in monazite geochronology to date the rock based on the decay of the U and Th to lead.[138] Organic minerals Main article: Organic mineral The Strunz classification includes a class for organic minerals. These rare compounds contain organic carbon, but can be formed by a geologic process. For example, whewellite, CaC2O4⋅H2O is an oxalate that can be deposited in hydrothermal ore veins. While hydrated calcium oxalate can be found in coal seams and other sedimentary deposits involving organic matter, the hydrothermal occurrence is not considered to be related to biological activity.[88] Astrobiology It has been suggested that biominerals could be important indicators of extraterrestrial life and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on the planet Mars. Furthermore, organic components (biosignatures) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and biotic reactions.[139] On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.[140][141][142][143] The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.[140][141] See also Amateur geology Dietary mineral Isomorphism (crystallography) List of minerals List of minerals (complete) Mineral collecting Polymorphism (materials science) Notes References Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrei (2004). Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin. Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780521529587. "IMA Database of Mineral Properties/ RRUFF Project". Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona. Retrieved 1 March 2018. Pasero, Marco; et al. (November 2017). "The New IMA List of Minerals – A Work in Progress". The New IMA List of Minerals. IMA – CNMNC (Commission on New Minerals Nomenclature and Classification). Retrieved 1 March 2018. "Definition of mineral variety". mindat.org. Retrieved 1 March 2018. https://www.britannica.com/science/mineral-chemical-compound/Silicates Dyar, Gunter, and Tasa (2007). Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy. Mineralogical Society of America. pp. 2–4. ISBN 978-0939950812. "Mercury". Mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. "Ice". Mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. "Mackinawite". Mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 13–14 Nickel, Ernest H. (1995). "The definition of a mineral". The Canadian Mineralogist. 33 (3): 689–90. "Dana Classification 8th edition – Organic Compounds". mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. "Nickel-Strunz Classification - silicates (Germanates) 10th edition". mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. Mills, J. S.; Hatert, F.; Nickel, E. H.; Ferraris, G. (2009). "The standardisation of mineral group hierarchies: application to recent nomenclature proposals". European Journal of Mineralogy. 21 (5): 1073–80. Bibcode:2009EJMin..21.1073M. doi:10.1127/0935-1221/2009/0021-1994. IMA divisions Archived 2011-08-10 at the Wayback Machine.. Ima-mineralogy.org (2011-01-12). Retrieved on 2011-10-20. H. A., Lowenstam (1981). "Minerals formed by organisms". Science. 211 (4487): 1126–31. Bibcode:1981Sci...211.1126L. doi:10.1126/science.7008198. JSTOR 1685216. PMID 7008198. Skinner, H. C. W. (2005). "Biominerals". Mineralogical Magazine. 69 (5): 621–41. Bibcode:2005MinM...69..621S. doi:10.1180/0026461056950275. "Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry". Commissions, working groups and committees. International Mineralogical Association. 3 August 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2018. Takai, K. (2010). "Limits of life and the biosphere: Lessons from the detection of microorganisms in the deep sea and deep subsurface of the Earth.". In Gargaud, M.; Lopez-Garcia, P.; Martin, H. Origins and Evolution of Life: An Astrobiological Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 469–86. ISBN 9781139494595. Roussel, E. G.; Cambon Bonavita, M.; Querellou, J.; Cragg, B. A.; Prieur, D.; Parkes, R. J.; Parkes, R. J. (2008). "Extending the Sub-Sea-Floor Biosphere". Science. 320 (5879): 1046. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1046R. doi:10.1126/science.1154545. PMID 18497290. Pearce, D. A.; Bridge, P. D.; Hughes, K. A.; Sattler, B.; Psenner, R.; Russel, N. J. (2009). "Microorganisms in the atmosphere over Antarctica". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 69 (2): 143–57. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2009.00706.x. PMID 19527292. Newman, D. K.; Banfield, J. F. (2002). "Geomicrobiology: How Molecular-Scale Interactions Underpin Biogeochemical Systems". Science. 296 (5570): 1071–77. doi:10.1126/science.1010716. PMID 12004119. Warren, L. A.; Kauffman, M. E. (2003). "Microbial geoengineers". Science. 299 (5609): 1027–29. doi:10.1126/science.1072076. JSTOR 3833546. PMID 12586932. González-Muñoz, M. T.; Rodriguez-Navarro, C.; Martínez-Ruiz, F.; Arias, J. M.; Merroun, M. L.; Rodriguez-Gallego, M. "Bacterial biomineralization: new insights from Myxococcus-induced mineral precipitation". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 336 (1): 31–50. Bibcode:2010GSLSP.336...31G. doi:10.1144/SP336.3. Veis, A. (1990). "Biomineralization. Cell Biology and Mineral Deposition. by Kenneth Simkiss; Karl M. Wilbur On Biomineralization. by Heinz A. Lowenstam; Stephen Weiner". Science. 247 (4946): 1129–30. Bibcode:1990Sci...247.1129S. doi:10.1126/science.247.4946.1129. JSTOR 2874281. PMID 17800080. Official IMA list of mineral names (updated from March 2009 list) Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine.. uws.edu.au Bouligand, Y. (2006). "Liquid crystals and morphogenesis.". In Bourgine, P.; Lesne, A. Morphogenesis: Origins of Patterns and Shape. Cambridge, UK: Springer Verlag. pp. 49 ff. ISBN 9783642131745. Gabriel, C. P.; Davidson, P. (2003). "Mineral Liquid Crystals from Self-Assembly of Anisotropic Nanosystems". Topics in Current Chemistry. 226: 119–72. doi:10.1007/b10827. K., Hefferan; J., O'Brien (2010). Earth Materials. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3460-9. Bindi, L.; Paul J. Steinhardt; Nan Yao; Peter J. Lu (2011). "Icosahedrite, Al63Cu24Fe13, the first natural quasicrystal". American Mineralogist. 96: 928–31. Bibcode:2011AmMin..96..928B. doi:10.2138/am.2011.3758. Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names, Approved as new mineral Archived 2012-03-20 at the Wayback Machine. Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 15–16 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 719–21 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 747–48 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 694–96 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 728–30 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 15 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 14 Chesterman and Cole, pp. 531–32 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 14–15 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 20–22 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp 558–59 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 556 Harper, Douglas. "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline. Retrieved 28 March 2018. Wilk, H (1986). "Systematic Classification of Minerals". In Wilk, H. The Magic of Minerals (Hardcover). Berlin: Springer. p. 154. ISBN 978-3-642-64783-3. Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 4–7 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 586 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 141 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 14 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 585 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 12–17 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 549 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 579 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 22–23 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 69–80 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 654–55 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 581 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 631–32 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 166 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 41–43 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 39 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 32–39 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 38 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 28–29 "Kyanite". Mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. Dyar and Darby, pp. 26–28 Busbey et al. 2007, p. 72 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 25 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 23 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 131–44 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 24 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 24–26 Busbey et al. 2007, p. 73 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 39–40 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 29–30 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 30–31 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 31–33 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 30–31 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 43–44 "Hematite". Mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. "Galena". Mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. "Kamacite". Webmineral.com. Retrieved 3 April 2018. "Gold". Mindat.org. Retrieved 3 April 2018. Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 44–45 "Mineral Identification Key: Radioactivity, Magnetism, Acid Reactions". Mineralogical Society of America. Archived from the original on 2012-09-22. Retrieved 2012-08-15. Helman, Daniel S. (2016). "Symmetry-based electricity in minerals and rocks: A summary of extant data, with examples of centrosymmetric minerals that exhibit pyro- and piezoelectricity". Periodico di Mineralogia. 85. doi:10.2451/2016PM590. Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 641 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 681 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 641–43 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 104 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 5 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 104–20 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 105 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 104–17 Chesterman and Cole, p. 502 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 578–83 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 583–88 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 588 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 589–93 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 525 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 110 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 110–13 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 602–05 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 593–95 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 537 "09.D Inosilicates". Webmineral.com. Retrieved 2012-08-20. Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 112 Dyar & Gunter 2008 pp. 612–13 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 606–12 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 611–12 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 113–15 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 558 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 617–21 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 612–27 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 565–73 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 116–17 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 573 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 574–75 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 627–34 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 644–48 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 357 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 649 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 651–54 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 654 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 383 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 400–03 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 657–60 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 663–64 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 660–63 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 425–30 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 431 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 667 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 668–69 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 453 Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp. 456–57 Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 674 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 672–73 Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp. 675–80 Steele, Andrew; Beaty, David, eds. (September 26, 2006). "Final report of the MEPAG Astrobiology Field Laboratory Science Steering Group (AFL-SSG)". The Astrobiology Field Laboratory (.doc). Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) – NASA. p. 72. Retrieved 2009-07-22. Grotzinger, John P. (January 24, 2014). "Introduction to Special Issue – Habitability, Taphonomy, and the Search for Organic Carbon on Mars". Science. 343 (6169): 386–87. Bibcode:2014Sci...343..386G. doi:10.1126/science.1249944. PMID 24458635. Various (January 24, 2014). "Exploring Martian Habitability". Science. 343 (6169): 345–452. Various (January 24, 2014). "Special Collection – Curiosity – Exploring Martian Habitability". Science. Retrieved January 24, 2014. Grotzinger, J.P.; et al. (January 24, 2014). "A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars". Science. 343 (6169): 1242777. Bibcode:2014Sci...343A.386G. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.455.3973 Freely accessible. doi:10.1126/science.1242777. PMID 24324272. General references Busbey, A. B.; Coenraads, R.E.; Roots, D.; Willis, P. (2007). Rocks and Fossils. San Francisco: Fog City Press. ISBN 978-1-74089-632-0. Chesterman, C. W.; Lowe, K. E. (2008). Field guide to North American rocks and minerals. Toronto: Random House of Canada. ISBN 0-394-50269-8. Dyar, M.D.; Gunter, M. E. (2008). Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy. Chantilly, Virginia: Mineralogical Society of America. ISBN 978-0-939950-81-2. Further reading Hazen, R. M.; Grew, Edward S.; Origlieri, Marcus J.; Downs, Robert T. (March 2017). "On the Mineralogy of the 'Anthropocene Epoch'" (PDF). American Mineralogist. 102 (3). Bibcode:2017AmMin.102..595H. doi:10.2138/am-2017-5875. Retrieved August 14, 2017. On the creation of new minerals by human activity. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Minerals. The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Minerals The Wikibook High School Earth Science has a page on the topic of: Earth's Minerals Mindat mineralogical database, largest mineral database on the Internet "Mineralogy Database" by David Barthelmy (2009) "Mineral Identification Key II" Mineralogical Society of America "American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database" Minerals and the Origins of Life (Robert Hazen, NASA) (video, 60m, April 2014). vte Natural resources Air Pollution / quality Ambient standards (USA) Index Indoor developing nations Law Clean Air Act (USA) Ozone depletion Emissions Airshed Trading Deforestation (REDD) Carson Falls on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo Energy Law Resources Fossil fuels (peak oil) Geothermal Nuclear Solar sunlight shade Tidal Wave Wind Land Arable peak farmland Degradation Law property Management habitat conservation Minerals mining law sand peak rights Soil conservation fertility health resilience Use planning reserve Life Biodiversity Bioprospecting Biosphere Bushfood Bushmeat Fisheries law management Food Forests genetic resources law management Game law Gene bank Herbalist plants Marine conservation Non-timber forest products Rangeland Seed bank Wildlife conservation management Wood Water Types / location Aquifer storage and recovery Drinking Fresh Groundwater pollution recharge remediation Hydrosphere Ice bergs glacial polar Irrigation Rain harvesting Stormwater Surface water Wastewater reclaimed Aspects Desalination Floods Law Leaching Sanitation Conflict Conservation Peak water Pollution Privatization Quality Right Resources management policy Related Commons enclosure global land tragedy of Economics ecological land Ecosystem services Exploitation overexploitation Earth Overshoot Day Management adaptive Natural capital accounting Nature reserve Systems ecology Urban ecology Wilderness Resource Common-pool Conflict (perpetuation) Curse Depletion Extraction Nationalism Renewable / Non-renewable Portal Portals Agriculture and agronomy Energy Environment Fishing Forestry Mining Water Wetlands Category Category agencies law management ministries organizations Colleges Commons page Natural resources Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4074836-4 LCCN: sh90001070 NARA: 10641957 NDL: 00566084 Categories: MineralsMineralogyNatural materials Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity Languages বাংলা हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 109 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2018, at 22:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Britton 2010, pp. 1032. Britton 2010, pp. 1116–1121. WHO (1994). "Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group". World Health Organization technical report series. 843: 1–129. PMID 7941614. Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston ; illustrated by Robert (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 1116–1121. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7. "2012 OSTEOPATHIC MEDICAL PROFESSION REPORT" (PDF). Osteopathic.org. American Osteopathic Organisation. Retrieved 26 November 2014. Dumont, E. R. (17 March 2010). "Bone density and the lightweight skeletons of birds". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 277 (1691): 2193–2198. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0117. PMC 2880151 Freely accessible. PMID 20236981. Hans J. Rolf; Alfred Enderle (1999). "Hard fallow deer antler: a living bone till antler casting?". The Anatomical Record. 255 (1): 69–77. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(19990501)255:1<69::AID-AR8>3.0.CO;2-R. PMID 10321994. "Dunkleosteus". American Museum of Natural History. cmnh.org de Buffrénil V.; Mazin J.-M. (1990). "Bone histology of the ichthyosaurs: comparative data and functional interpretation". Paleobiology. 16: 435–447. JSTOR 2400968. Laurin, M.; Canoville, A.; Germain, D. (2011). "Bone microanatomy and lifestyle: a descriptive approach". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 10 (5–6): 381–402. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2011.02.003. Footnotes Katja Hoehn; Marieb, Elaine Nicpon (2007). Human Anatomy & Physiology (7th Edition). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-5909-5. Bryan H. Derrickson; Tortora, Gerard J. (2005). Principles of anatomy and physiology. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-68934-3. Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston ; illustrated by Robert (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7. Deakin, Barbara Young; et al. (2006). Wheater's functional histology : a text and colour atlas (5th ed.). [Edinburgh?]: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-443-068-508. – drawings by Philip J. Hall, Arthur C.; Guyton, John E. (2005). Textbook of medical physiology (11th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. ISBN 978-0-7216-0240-0. Anthony, S. Fauci; Harrison, T.R.; et al. (2008). Harrison's principles of internal medicine (17th ed.). New York [etc.]: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-147692-8. – Anthony edits the current version; Harrison edited previous versions. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bones. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Bone Educational resource materials (including animations) by the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research Review (including references) of piezoelectricity and bone remodelling A good basic overview of bone biology from the Science Creative Quarterly Usha Kini; B. N. Nandeesh. "Ch 2: Physiology of Bone Formation, Remodeling, and Metabolism". In Ignac Fogelman; Gopinath Gnanasegaran; Hans van der Wall. Radionuclide and hybrid bone imaging (PDF). Berlin: Springer. pp. 29–57. ISBN 978-3-642-02399-6. Bone histology photomicrographs vte Bone and cartilage Bones of the human skeleton vte Bones in the human skeleton vte The facial skeleton of the skull vte The neurocranium of the skull vte Compound structures of skull vte Bones of the arm vte Bones of torso vte Bones of the human leg vte Bones of the pelvis vte Fractures and cartilage injuries (Sx2, 800–829) Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4128031-3 NARA: 10647221 NDL: 00563399 Categories: BonesSkeletal systemConnective tissue Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages বাংলা हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी ଓଡ଼ିଆ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 113 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 July 2018, at 16:04 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Protection: an anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the internal and external environment in bodily defense. (See Skin absorption.) Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the adaptive immune system.[2][3] Sensation: contains a variety of nerve endings that jump to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury (see somatosensory system and haptic perception). Thermoregulation: eccrine (sweat) glands and dilated blood vessels (increased superficial perfusion) aid heat loss, while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat. Erector pili muscles in mammals adjust the angle of hair shafts to change the degree of insulation provided by hair or fur. Control of evaporation: the skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to reduce fluid loss.[3] Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water Absorption through the skin: Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide can diffuse into the epidermis in small amounts; some animals use their skin as their sole respiration organ (in humans, the cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin are "almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen", although the "contribution to total respiration is negligible")[17] Some medications are absorbed through the skin. Water resistance: The skin acts as a water resistant barrier so essential nutrients aren't washed out of the body. The nutrients and oils that help hydrate the skin are covered by the most outer skin layer, the epidermis. This is helped in part by the sebaceous glands that release sebum, an oily liquid. Water itself will not cause the elimination of oils on the skin, because the oils residing in our dermis flow and would be affected by water without the epidermis.[18] Camouflage, whether the skin is naked or covered in fur, scales, or feathers, skin structures provide protective coloration and patterns that help to conceal animals from predators or prey.[19] Mechanics Main article: Soft tissue Skin is a soft tissue and exhibits key mechanical behaviors of these tissues. The most pronounced feature is the J-curve stress strain response, in which a region of large strain and minimal stress exists, and corresponds to the microstructural straightening and reorientation of collagen fibrils.[20] In some cases the intact skin is prestreched, like wetsuits around the diver's body, and in other cases the intact skin is under compression. Small circular holes punched on the skin may widen or close into ellipses, or shrink and remain circular, depending on preexisting stresses.[21] Aging Tissue homeostasis generally declines with age, in part because stem/progenitor cells fail to self-renew or differentiate. In the skin of mice, mitochondrial oxidative stress can promote cellular senescence and aging phenotypes.[22] Ordinarily mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD2) protects against oxidative stress. Using a mouse model of genetic SOD2 deficiency, it was shown that failure to express this important antioxidant enzyme in epidermal cells caused cellular senescence, nuclear DNA damage, and irreversible arrest of proliferation of a fraction of keratinocytes.[22][23] Society and culture The term "skin" may also refer to the covering of a small animal, such as a sheep, goat (goatskin), pig, snake (snakeskin) etc. or the young of a large animal. The term hides or rawhide refers to the covering of a large adult animal such as a cow, buffalo, horse etc. Skins and hides from the different animals are used for clothing, bags and other consumer products, usually in the form of leather, but also as furs. Skin from sheep, goat and cattle was used to make parchment for manuscripts. Skin can also be cooked to make pork rind or crackling. See also icon Anatomy portal Cutaneous reflex in human locomotion Cutaneous respiration - gas exchange conducted through skin Hair – including hair follicles in skin Moult Rawhide Role of skin in locomotion Skin flora References Alibardi L (2003). "Adaptation to the land: The skin of reptiles in comparison to that of amphibians and endotherm amniotes". J Exp Zoolog B Mol Dev Evol. 298 (1): 12–41. doi:10.1002/jez.b.24. PMID 12949767. Proksch E, Brandner JM, Jensen JM (2008). "The skin: an indispensable barrier". Exp Dermatol. 17 (12): 1063–72. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00786.x. PMID 19043850. Madison KC (2003). "Barrier function of the skin: "la raison d'être" of the epidermis" (PDF). J Invest Dermatol. 121 (2): 231–41. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12359.x. PMID 12880413. Thornton MJ (2002). "The biological actions of estrogen in skin" (PDF). Experimental Dermatology. 11: 487–502. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0625.2002.110601.x. Gillian S. Ashcroft; Teresa Greenwell-Wild & Mark W. J. Ferguson (1999). "Topical Estrogen Accelerates Cutaneous Wound Healing in Aged Humans Associated with an Altered Inflammatory Response". The American Journal of Pathology. 155 (4): 1137–1146. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65217-0. PMC 1867002 Freely accessible. PMID 10514397. Desiree May Oh, MD, Tania J. Phillips, MD (2006). "Sex Hormones and Wound Healing". Wounds. "fur". Retrieved 4 March 2017 – via The Free Dictionary. Clarke, BT (1997). "The natural history of amphibian skin secretions, their normal functioning and potential medical applications". Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 72 (3): 365–379. doi:10.1017/s0006323197005045. PMID 9336100. McGrath, J.A.; Eady, R.A.; Pope, F.M. (2004). Rook's Textbook of Dermatology (7th ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1–3.6. ISBN 978-0-632-06429-8. The Ageing Skin – Structure. pharmaxchange.info. March 3, 2011 Breitkreutz, D; Mirancea, N; Nischt, R (2009). "Basement membranes in skin: Unique matrix structures with diverse functions?". Histochemistry and cell biology. 132 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1007/s00418-009-0586-0. PMID 19333614. Iozzo, RV (2005). "Basement membrane proteoglycans: From cellar to ceiling". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 6 (8): 646–56. doi:10.1038/nrm1702. PMID 16064139. Smith MM, Melrose J (2015). "Proteoglycans in normal and healing skin". Adv. Wound Care. 4 (3): 152–73. doi:10.1089/wound.2013.0464. PMC 4352701 Freely accessible. PMID 25785238. Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 129–145. ISBN 0-03-910284-X. Toledo, R.C. (1995). "Cutaneous granular glands and amphibian venoms - ScienceDirect". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology. 111: 1–29. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(95)98515-I. Retrieved 2017-04-27. Journal of Morphology. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology . 1920-01-01. Stücker M, Struk A, Altmeyer P, Herde M, Baumgärtl H, Lübbers DW (2002). "The cutaneous uptake of atmospheric oxygen contributes significantly to the oxygen supply of human dermis and epidermis". J. Physiol. 538 (3): 985–994. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2001.013067. PMC 2290093 Freely accessible. PMID 11826181. McCracken, Thomas (2000). New Atlas of Human Anatomy. China: Metro Books. pp. 1–240. ISBN 1-58663-097-0. "Camouflage". National Geographic. Retrieved 27 February 2017. Sherman, Vincent R. (2015). "The materials science of collagen". Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials. 52: 22–50. doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.05.023. PMID 26144973. Bush, James A. (2008). "Skin tension or skin compression? Small circular wounds are likely to shrink, not gape". Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery. 61 (5): 529–34. doi:10.1016/j.bjps.2007.06.004. PMID 17652049. Velarde MC, Flynn JM, Day NU, Melov S, Campisi J (January 2012). "Mitochondrial oxidative stress caused by Sod2 deficiency promotes cellular senescence and aging phenotypes in the skin". Aging (Albany NY). 4 (1): 3–12. doi:10.18632/aging.100423. PMC 3292901 Freely accessible. PMID 22278880. Velarde MC, Demaria M, Melov S, Campisi J (August 2015). "Pleiotropic age-dependent effects of mitochondrial dysfunction on epidermal stem cells". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112 (33): 10407–12. doi:10.1073/pnas.1505675112. PMC 4547253 Freely accessible. PMID 26240345. External links Media related to Human skin at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of skin at Wiktionary vte Physiology of skin vte Development of skin Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4023838-6 NDL: 00563596 Categories: Soft tissueLeathermakingSkinOrgans (anatomy)Animal anatomySkin physiology Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages অসমীয়া हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 126 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 July 2018, at 15:56 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Clothing fetish Thermoregulation Timeline of requisite dress in Western civilization List of iconic dresses References Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser & Mark Stoneking (2003), "Molecular evolution of Pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing" (PDF), Current Biology, 13 (16): 1414–1417, doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4, PMID 12932325, archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-10 Kittler, Ralf; Kayser, Manfred; Stoneking, Mark (2004). "Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing". Current Biology. 14 (24): 2309. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2004.12.024. "...Lice Indicates Early Clothing Use ...", Mol Biol Evol (2011) 28 (1): 29-32. Reed, David (2007). "Pair of lice lost or parasites regained: The evolutionary history of Anthropoid primate lice". BMC Biology. "Naked ape: Humans lost body hair long before finding clothes". 2003-08-20. Retrieved 2012-03-13.[dead link] Flugel, John Carl (1976) [1930], The Psychology of Clothes, International Psycho-analytical Library, No.18, New York: AMS Press. First published by Hogarth Press, London, ISBN 0-404-14721-6 Alternative ISBN 978-0-404-14721-1 (This work is one of the earliest attempts at an overview of the psycho-social and practical functions of clothing) Baradel, Lacey. "Geographic Mobility and Domesticity in Eastman Johnson’s The Tramp." American Art 28.2 (2014): 26-49 e.g. Jeffreys, Julius (1858), The British Army in India: Its Preservation by an appropriate Clothing, Housing, Locating, Recreative Employment, and Hopeful Encouragement of the Troops, London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts, retrieved 8 September 2010 Newburgh, Louis Harry, ed. (1968) [1949], Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing, New York & London: Hafner Publishing Hertig, Bruce A (February 1969), "Book review: Physiology of Heat Regulation and the Science of Clothing", Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 11 (2): 100, doi:10.1097/00043764-196902000-00012, PMC 1520373 Freely accessible, retrieved 8 September 2010 (reviewer's name appears next to Newburgh, but was not the co-author. See also reviewer's name at bottom of page). Gilligan, Ian (January 2010), "The Prehistoric Development of Clothing: Archaeological Implications of a Thermal Model", Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 17 (1): 15–80, doi:10.1007/s10816-009-9076-x "?" (PDF). Retrieved 9 August 2010.[self-published source?] Hoffecker, J., Scott, J., Excavations In Eastern Europe Reveal Ancient Human Lifestyles, University of Colorado at Boulder News Archive, March 21, 2002, colorado.edu Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine. Balter M (2009). "Clothes Make the (Hu) Man". Science. 325 (5946): 1329. doi:10.1126/science.325_1329a. PMID 19745126. Kvavadze E, Bar-Yosef O, Belfer-Cohen A, Boaretto E, Jakeli N, Matskevich Z, Meshveliani T (2009). "30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers". Science. 325 (5946): 1359. doi:10.1126/science.1175404. PMID 19745144. Supporting Online Material Reed; et al. (2004). "Genetic Analysis of Lice Supports Direct Contact between Modern and Archaic Humans". PLoS Biology. 2 (11): e340. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340. PMC 521174 Freely accessible. PMID 15502871. Mary Louise Roberts, "Samson and Delilah revisited: the politics of women's fashion in 1920s France." American Historical Review 98.3 (1993): 657-684. Simon Bliss, "'L’intelligence de la parure': Notes on Jewelry Wearing in the 1920s." Fashion Theory 20.1 (2016): 5-26. Steven Zdatny, "The Boyish Look and the Liberated Woman: The Politics and Aesthetics of Women's Hairstyles." Fashion Theory 1.4 (1997): 367-397. When Wrinkle-Free Clothing Also Means Formaldehyde Fumes. New York Times. Changes of Free Formaldehyde Quantity in Non-iron Shirts by Washing and Storage Archived 2011-07-22 at the Wayback Machine.. Journal of Health Science. Minter, Adam (15 January 2018). "No One Wants Your Used Clothes Anymore". Bloomberg View. Retrieved 17 January 2018. Banigan, Melissa (25 January 2018). "East Africa Doesn't Want Your Hand-Me-Downs". Racked. Vox Media. Retrieved 26 January 2018. The Textile Materials Eco Battle Between Natural and Synthetic Fabrics "Steven E. Davis, Sweatshirt Station". Further reading Finnane, Antonia (2008), Changing Clothes in China: Fashion, History, Nation, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-14350-9, retrieved 8 September 2010 ebook ISBN 978-0-231-51273-2 Forsberg, Krister; Mansdorf, S.Z (2007), Quick Selection Guide to Chemical Protective Clothing (5th ed.), Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-470-14681-1, retrieved 8 September 2010 Gavin, Timothy P (2003), "Clothing and Thermoregulation During Exercise", Sports Medicine, 33 (13): 941–947, doi:10.2165/00007256-200333130-00001, PMID 14606923, retrieved 8 September 2010 Hollander, Anne L (1993), Seeing Through Clothes, Berkley & Los Angeles, California, and London, UK: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-08231-1, retrieved 8 September 2010 Montain, Scott J; Sawaka, Michael N; Cadarett, Bruce S; Quigley, Mark D; McKay, James M (1994), "Physiological tolerance to uncompensable heat stress: effects of exercise intensity, protective clothing, and climate" (PDF), Journal of Applied Physiology, 77 (1): 216–222, PMID 7961236, retrieved 8 September 2010 Ross, Robert (2008), Clothing, a Global History: or, The Imperialist's New Clothes, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-3186-8, retrieved 8 September 2010 Paperback ISBN 978-0-7456-3187-5 Tochihara, Yutaka; Ohnaka, Tadakatsu, eds. (2005), Environmental Ergonomics: The Ergonomics of Human Comfort, Health and Performance in the Thermal Environment, Elsevier Ergonomics Book Series, Vol.3, Amsterdam & Boston: Elsevier, pp. 315–320, ISBN 0-08-044466-0, retrieved 8 September 2010 (see especially sections 5 – 'Clothing' – & 6 – 'Protective clothing'). Yarborough, Portia; Nelson, Cherilyn N, eds. (2005), Performance of Protective Clothing: Global Needs and Emerging Markets, 8th Vol., West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, ISBN 0-8031-3488-6, ISSN 1040-3035, retrieved 8 September 2010 External links Find more about clothing at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity BBC Wiltshire Dents Glove Museum International Textile and Apparel Association, scholarly publications German Hosiery Museum (English language) Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking (.PDF file) Cornell Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History (HEARTH) vte Clothing BathingSuit1920s.jpgFashion portal Categories: ClothingClothing manufacturers Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikivoyage Languages বাংলা ગુજરાતી हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 129 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 July 2018, at 13:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Findley & Rothney. Twentieth-Century World (Houghton Mifflin, 1986) Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York. ISBN 978-0465097197. Geertz, Clifford 1957. "Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example", American Anthropologist, Vol. 59, No. 1. doi:10.1525/aa.1957.59.1.02a00040 Goodall, J. 1986. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674116498 Hoult, T. F., ed. 1969. Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey, United States: Littlefield, Adams & Co. Jary, D. and J. Jary. 1991. The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0062715437 Keiser, R. Lincoln 1969. The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 978-0030803611. Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum Kim, Uichol (2001). "Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis." In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press McClenon, James. "Tylor, Edward B(urnett)". Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, 1998. 528–29. Middleton, R. 1990. Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0335152759. O'Neil, D. 2006. Cultural Anthropology Tutorials, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10. Reagan, Ronald. "Final Radio Address to the Nation", January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006. Reese, W.L. 1980. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. New Jersey U.S., Sussex, U.K: Humanities Press. Tylor, E.B. (1974) [1871]. Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. New York: Gordon Press. ISBN 978-0879680916. UNESCO. 2002. Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, issued on International Mother Language Day, February 21, 2002. Retrieved: 2006-06-23. White, L. 1949. The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. Vintage: New York. ISBN 978-0679768678. Wolfram, Stephen. 2002 A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc. ISBN 978-1579550080 Articles The Meaning of "Culture" (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, The New Yorker External links Find more about Culture at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Cultura: International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture-definition-of-culture.html vte Culture Authority control Edit this at Wikidata BNF: cb11931827z (data) GND: 4125698-0 LCCN: sh85034755 NARA: 10640511 NDL: 00560998 Categories: CultureSocial conceptsSocial constructionism Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Languages বাংলা हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം मराठी ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 161 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 July 2018, at 03:48 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Notes Briggs 2000, p. 9 Maurice Godelier, Métamorphoses de la parenté, 2004 Jack Goody. "The Labyrinth of Kinship". New Left Review. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2007. Berger, Peter L. (1967). The Scared Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. Garden City, NYC: Doubleday & Company, Inc. p. 3. Lenski, G. 1974. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Archived 15 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive. John P McKay, Bennett D Hill, John Buckler, Clare Haru Crowston and Merry E Wiesner-Hanks: Western Society: A Brief History. Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Archived 1 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine. The Information Society. Indiana University. Archived 7 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Information Society Policies at a Glance. From Europa.eu. Archived 24 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 October 2009. WSIS Implementation by Action Line. From ITU.int. Archived 26 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Building the Knowledge Society. Report to Government, December 2002. Information Society Commission, Ireland Archived 21 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Second World Summit on the Knowledge Society. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Archived 30 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Further reading Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community College. Jenkins, Richard (2002). Foundations of Sociology. London: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-96050-5. Lenski, Gerhard E. (1974). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. ISBN 0-07-037172-5. Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Fontana, 1976. Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne. Reading Capital. London: Verso, 2009. Bottomore, Tom (ed). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 1991. 45–48. Calhoun, Craig (ed), Dictionary of the Social Sciences Oxford University Press (2002) Hall, Stuart. "Rethinking the Base and Superstructure Metaphor". Papers on Class, Hegemony and Party. Bloomfield, J., ed. London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1977. Chris Harman. "Base and Superstructure". International Socialism 2:32, Summer 1986, pp. 3–44. Harvey, David. A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso, 2010. Larrain, Jorge. Marxism and Ideology. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1983. Lukács, Georg. History and Class Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1972. Postone, Moishe. Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Briggs, Asa (2000). The Age of Improvement (2nd ed.). Longman. ISBN 0-582-36959-2. External links Look up Society in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Society. Society at Curlie (based on DMOZ) Definition of Society from the OED. Lecture notes on "Defining Society"[dead link] from East Carolina University. Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution The Day the World Took Off Six-part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question "Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did." BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living by Clark Nardinelli - the debate over whether standards of living rose or fell. Cliff Notes on Types of Societies Perceptions of Knowledge, Knowledge Society, and Knowledge Management vte Humanities vte Social and political philosophy Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4020588-5 NARA: 10641788 NDL: 00571842 Categories: SocietyTypes of organization Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Languages বাংলা भोजपुरी हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം ਪੰਜਾਬੀ سنڌي தமிழ் اردو 127 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 July 2018, at 15:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki "History of the UN". About the United Nations/History. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2008. "House of Lords Judgments". House of Lords. Retrieved 10 November 2006. "Jurisprudence, publications, documentation" (in French). Cour de cassation. Retrieved 11 February 2007. "law". Law.com Dictionary. Retrieved 10 February 2007. "law". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9 February 2007. "legal". Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary. Retrieved 9 February 2007. "Magna Carta". Fordham University. Retrieved 10 November 2006. Marmor, Andrei (1934). "The Pure Theory of Law". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 9 February 2007. "Saudi Arabia". Jurist. Archived from the original on 30 August 2006. Retrieved 2 September 2006. "The States Parties to the Rome Statute". International Criminal Court. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2007. "The World Factbook – Field Listing – Legal system". CIA. Retrieved 13 October 2007. External links Find more about Law at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity DRAGNET: Search of free legal databases from New York Law School WorldLII – World Legal Information Institute CommonLII – Commonwealth Legal Information Institute AsianLII – Asian Legal Information Institute (AsianLII) AustLII – Australasian Legal Information Institute BaiLII – British and Irish Legal Information Institute CanLII – Canadian Legal Information Institute NZLII – New Zealand Legal Information Institute PacLII – Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute SAfLII – Southern African Legal Information Institute vte Law Law by region vte Humanities vte Social sciences Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4048737-4 LCCN: sh85075119 NARA: 10636756 Categories: LawSocial conceptsHumanitiesAuthorityVirtue Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Languages বাংলা हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ मैथिली മലയാളം मराठी ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் اردو 147 more Edit links This page was last edited on 9 July 2018, at 20:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Petition Special Leave Petitions in India Old Order German Baptist Brethren, also called "Petitioners" Categories: Legal terminology Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages हिन्दी Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 25 September 2016, at 18:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki In Europe, paper money was first introduced in Sweden in 1661. Sweden was rich in copper, thus, because of copper's low value, extraordinarily big coins (often weighing several kilograms) had to be made. The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier, since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms. It enabled the sale of stock in joint stock companies, and the redemption of those shares in paper. However, these advantages held within them disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it increased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century. The result is that paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began demanding hard money, causing the demand for paper notes to fall to zero. The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army. For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large. Major nations established mints to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock. At this time both silver and gold were considered legal tender, and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increase both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called bimetallism and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States Greenback, to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed. Banknotes with a face value of 5000 of different currencies By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Private banks and governments across the world followed Gresham's Law: keeping gold and silver paid, but paying out in notes. This did not happen all around the world at the same time, but occurred sporadically, generally in times of war or financial crisis, beginning in the early part of the 20th century and continuing across the world until the late 20th century, when the regime of floating fiat currencies came into force. One of the last countries to break away from the gold standard was the United States in 1971. No country anywhere in the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system. Payment From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2007) This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (October 2013) This article may have too many section headers dividing up its content. (April 2015) A payment is the trade of value from one party (such as a person or company) to another for goods, or services, or to fulfill a legal obligation. Payment can take a variety of forms. Barter, the exchange of one good or service for another, is a form of payment. The most common means of payment involve use of money, cheque, or debit, credit or bank transfers. Payments may also take complicated forms, such as stock issues or the transfer of anything of value or benefit to the parties. In US law, the payer is the party making a payment while the payee is the party receiving the payment. In trade, payments are frequently preceded by an invoice or bill. In general, the payee is at liberty to determine what method of payment he or she will accept; though normally laws require the payer to accept the country's legal tender up to a prescribed limit. Payment is most commonly effected in the local currency of the payee, unless if the parties agree otherwise. Payment in another currency involves an additional foreign exchange transaction. The payee may compromise on a debt, i.e., accept a part payment in full settlement of a debtor's obligation, or may offer a discount, for example, for payment in cash, or for prompt payment, etc. On the other hand, the payee may impose a surcharge, for example, as a late payment fee, or for use of a certain credit card, etc. The acceptance of a payment by the payee extinguishes a debt or other obligation. A creditor cannot unreasonably refuse to accept a payment, but payment can be refused in some circumstances, for example, on a Sunday or outside banking hours. A payee is usually obligated to acknowledge payment by producing a receipt to the payer. A receipt may be an endorsement on an account as "paid in full". The giving of a guarantee or other security for a debt does not constitute a payment. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Methods 3 Parties involved 4 Providers 5 Interbank 5.1 Direct 5.2 Indirect 5.3 Directness coefficient (p,q) 5.4 Sn,Rm Description 6 Global market 6.1 Debit cards 6.2 Cheques 7 Timing 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References Etymology The root word "pay" in "payment" comes from the Latin "pacare" (to pacify), from "pax", meaning "peace". In the Middle Ages, the term began to be used more broadly, to mean "to pacify one's creditors". As the Latin word was made part of Old French "paier", it retained the meaning "pacify" (and "appease") but gained the meaning "to pay" (as in paying a debt). The Middle English word "payen", which came from French, was also used in both ways.[1] Methods There are two types of payment methods; exchanging and provisioning. Exchanging involves the use of money, comprising banknotes and coins. Provisioning involves the transfer of money from one account to another, and involves a third party. Credit card, debit card, cheque, money transfers, and recurring cash or ACH (Automated Clearing House) disbursements are all electronic payments methods. Electronic payments technologies include magnetic stripe cards, smartcards, contactless cards, and mobile payments. Parties involved Payments may be classified by the number of parties involved in a transaction. For example, a credit card transaction usually involves four parties (the purchaser, the seller, the issuing bank, and the acquiring bank). A cash payment requires a minimum of three parties (the seller, the purchaser, and the issuer of the currency). A barter payment requires a minimum of two parties (the purchaser and the seller). Providers The infrastructure and electronic clearing methods are formed by the payment provider. Global credit card payment providers are Diners Club, Visa, American Express and MasterCard. Maestro and Cirrus are international debit card payment providers. Interbank The central bank CB(Ccy) of a currency can maintain a loro account for a bank (which the bank would call a nostro account). Direct A bank P (the payer) with a central bank nostro can pay directly to another bank R (the receiver) which has also a nostro with CB(Ccy) by instructing the central bank to make a payment of N[Ccy] (or an amount N in Ccy). The central bank however will only accept Ps payment instruction if the balance B on P's loro account before the payment is B≥N. The payment itself is a booking in the loro accounts of the central bank where P's loro account is debited with N (it will be B-N≥0 thereafter) and simultaneously Rs loro account is credit with N (its balance C will be C+N≥0 thereafter). We denote the payment symbolically with [P→CB→R]. Indirect If the payer P maintains a loro account for another bank X, P can act as a payment agent for X: X instructs P to pay to R; then P instructs CB(Ccy) to pay on behalf of X: [X→P→CB→R]. In this example the first half of the payment is indirect and the second one (from CB(Ccy) to R) is still direct. If X would pay via P to R and finally to another party Y, the payment would be 'fully indirect': [X→P→CB→R→Y]. In practice, not every payment agent might have a direct nostro with the central bank, thus rather weird payment constellations can exist, which are hard to describe. Party (law) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search A party is a person or group of persons that compose a single entity which can be identified as one for the purposes of the law. Parties include: plaintiff (person filing suit), defendant (person sued or charged with a crime), petitioner (files a petition asking for a court ruling), respondent (usually in opposition to a petition or an appeal), cross-complainant (a defendant who sues someone else in the same lawsuit), or cross-defendant (a person sued by a cross-complainant).[1] A person who only appears in the case as a witness is not considered a party. Courts use various terms to identify the role of a particular party in civil litigation, usually identifying the party that brings a lawsuit as the plaintiff, or, in older American cases, the party of the first part; and the party against whom the case was brought as the defendant, or, in older American cases, the party of the second part. See also Erga omnes Ex parte proceeding Inter partes proceeding Intervention (law) References "Party - legal definition". Stub icon This legal term article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Categories: Legal terminologyLegal terminology stubs Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Čeština Deutsch Español हिन्दी Italiano 日本語 Polski Português Svenska 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 January 2017, at 20:59 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Directness coefficient (p,q) If we define (p,q) where p is number of parties on the sender side and q on the receiver side, we can classify the directness of payments. Sn,Rm Description We denote with Sn the senders and with Rm the receivers in a payment process, such that R0=S0=CBCCY is the central bank of the currency which has 'no' distance (n=m=0) to the payment process, m,n=1: the direct nostro agents of the sender / receiver: S1 is the direct payer; R1 is the direct receiver (or nostro agent) m,n=2: the indirect nostro agents of the sender / receiver: S2 is the indirect payer; R2 is the indirect receiver m,n=3: the sender / payer bank : S3 is the sender bank; R3 is the receiver bank m,n=4: the sender / payer: S4 is the sender (payer); R4 is the receiver (payee) Here is an (p=q=4) example: [sender→sender bank → indirect agent of sender bank → direct agent of sender bank → central bank → direct agent of receiver bank → indirect agent of receiver bank → receiver bank → receiver(payee)] or [S4 → S3 → S2 → S1 → S0=R0 → R1 → R2 → R3 → R4] Global market In 2005, an estimated $40 trillion globally passed through some type of payment system. Roughly $12 trillion of that was transacted through various credit cards, mostly the 21,000 member banks of Visa and MasterCard. Processing payments, including the extending of credit, produced close to $500 billion in revenue.[2] In 2012, roughly $377 trillion passed through noncash payment systems. This led to total account and transaction revenues close to $524 billion.[3] Debit cards In the U.S., debit cards are the fastest growing payment technology. In 2001, debit cards accounted for 9 percent of all purchase transactions, and this is expected to double to 18.82 percent in 2011.[4] Cheques Main article: Cheque clearing Historically, cheques have been one of the primary means of payment for purchasing goods and services, though its share in the payment mix is falling worldwide. In 2001, in the United States, cheques accounted for 25% of the U.S.-based payment mix; and in 2006, this was projected to fall to 17%.[5] In the United States, a cheque as a form of payment can legally be refused for any reason (or no reason).[citation needed] A payment by cheque is not a "payment" until the cheque has been cashed (i.e., deposited) and cleared by the banking system. Timing The timing of a payment has legal implication in some situations. For tax purposes, for example, the timing of a payment may determine whether it qualifies as a deduction in a taxpayer's calculation of taxable income in one year or the next. For U.S. tax purposes, cash payments generally are taken to occur at the time of payment. Payment may also occur when a person transfers property or performs a service to the payee in satisfaction of an obligation.[6] A payment by check is normally deemed to occur when the check is delivered, as long as the check is honored on presentation by the payee. This rule also generally applies where the check is not presented to the bank until the next taxable year, and even though the payer could stop payment on the check in the meantime.[7] Postdated checks, however, are not considered payment when delivered.[8] Generally, payments by credit card take effect at the point of the sale and not when a payer is billed by the credit card company or when the payer pays the credit card company's bill.[9] A business that reports on an accrual basis, would report income in the year of sale though payment may be received in a subsequent year. Payment of most fees to government agencies by cheque, if permitted, usually takes effect after a set number of days for clearance or until the cheque is actually cleared. Payments by credit card, if permitted, and cash payments take immediate effect. Normally, no other forms of payment are permitted or accepted. See also Look up payment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Accounting Alternative Payments APACS (The UK Payments Association) Business Commerce Financial transaction Money Money transmitter Trade Footnotes The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories. Merriam-Webster Inc., 1991. p. 350. McKinsey and Company, 2006 Boston Consulting Group, "Global Payments 2013", September 2013 The Nilson Report, Issue 761, April 2002 The Nilson Report See Donaldson, Samuel A., Federal Income Taxation of Individuals: Cases, Problems and Materials, 734 (2nd. Ed. 2007). Estate of Spiegel v. Commissioner, 12 T.C. 524 (1949). Griffin v. Commissioner, 49 T.C. 253 (1967). Revenue Ruling 78-38, 1978-1 C.B. 67. References Schaeffer, Mary S.: John Wiley & Sons (2007) New Payment World Schaeffer, Mary S.: John Wiley & Sons (2007) Controller & CFO Guide to Accounts Payable Schaeffer, Mary S.: John Wiley & Sons (2006) Accounts Payable & Sarbanes Oxley Categories: PaymentsBusiness termsFinancial lawLegal terminology Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français ಕನ್ನಡ नेपाली 日本語 Русский தமிழ் 18 more Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2018, at 06:24 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki Commercial bank Main article: Demand deposit A check, used as a means of converting funds in a demand deposit to cash Commercial bank money or demand deposits are claims against financial institutions that can be used for the purchase of goods and services. A demand deposit account is an account from which funds can be withdrawn at any time by check or cash withdrawal without giving the bank or financial institution any prior notice. Banks have the legal obligation to return funds held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or 'at call'). Demand deposit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using automatic teller machines (ATMs), or through online banking.[40] Commercial bank money is created through fractional-reserve banking, the banking practice where banks keep only a fraction of their deposits in reserve (as cash and other highly liquid assets) and lend out the remainder, while maintaining the simultaneous obligation to redeem all these deposits upon demand.[41][page needed][42] Commercial bank money differs from commodity and fiat money in two ways: firstly it is non-physical, as its existence is only reflected in the account ledgers of banks and other financial institutions, and secondly, there is some element of risk that the claim will not be fulfilled if the financial institution becomes insolvent. The process of fractional-reserve banking has a cumulative effect of money creation by commercial banks, as it expands money supply (cash and demand deposits) beyond what it would otherwise be. Because of the prevalence of fractional reserve banking, the broad money supply of most countries is a multiple larger than the amount of base money created by the country's central bank. That multiple (called the money multiplier) is determined by the reserve requirement or other financial ratio requirements imposed by financial regulators. The money supply of a country is usually held to be the total amount of currency in circulation plus the total value of checking and savings deposits in the commercial banks in the country. In modern economies, relatively little of the money supply is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in the U.S., of the $8853.4 billion in broad money supply (M2), only $915.7 billion (about 10%) consisted of physical coins and paper money.[43] Electronic or digital Main article: Electronic money Many digital currencies, in particular Flooz and Beenz, had gained momentum before the Dot-com bubble of the early 2000s. Not much innovation occurred until the conception of Bitcoin in 2009, which introduced the concept of a cryptocurrency. Monetary policy Main article: Monetary policy US dollar banknotes When gold and silver are used as money, the money supply can grow only if the supply of these metals is increased by mining. This rate of increase will accelerate during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the New World and brought back gold and silver to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. However, if the rate of gold mining cannot keep up with the growth of the economy, gold becomes relatively more valuable, and prices (denominated in gold) will drop, causing deflation. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold and paper money backed by gold were used as money in the 18th and 19th centuries. Modern day monetary systems are based on fiat money and are no longer tied to the value of gold. The control of the amount of money in the economy is known as monetary policy. Monetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek "to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates."[44] A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages of imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet Union. Governments and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the tools used to control the money supply include: changing the interest rate at which the central bank loans money to (or borrows money from) the commercial banks currency purchases or sales increasing or lowering government borrowing increasing or lowering government spending manipulation of exchange rates raising or lowering bank reserve requirements regulation or prohibition of private currencies taxation or tax breaks on imports or exports of capital into a country In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the European Central Bank. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People's Bank of China and the Bank of England. For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz[45] supported by the work of David Laidler,[46] and many others. The nature of the demand for money changed during the 1980s owing to technical, institutional, and legal factors[clarification needed] and the influence of monetarism has since decreased. Money investment Main article: Capital_market In economics, in many cases, the money can be treated as the capital. The capital can be invested into the capital markets with a goal to get the high Return-On-Investment (ROI) premium. The capital markets definition includes the money markets and some other investment markets.[47][48][49][50] Counterfeit Main article: Counterfeit money Counterfeit money is imitation currency produced without the legal sanction of the state or government. Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud or forgery. Counterfeiting is almost as old as money itself. Plated copies (known as Fourrées) have been found of Lydian coins which are thought to be among the first western coins.[51] Before the introduction of paper money, the most prevalent method of counterfeiting involved mixing base metals with pure gold or silver. A form of counterfeiting is the production of documents by legitimate printers in response to fraudulent instructions. During World War II, the Nazis forged British pounds and American dollars. Today some of the finest counterfeit banknotes are called Superdollars because of their high quality and likeness to the real U.S. dollar. There has been significant counterfeiting of Euro banknotes and coins since the launch of the currency in 2002, but considerably less than for the U.S. dollar.[52] Laundering Main article: Money laundering Money laundering is the process in which the proceeds of crime are transformed into ostensibly legitimate money or other assets.[53] However, in a number of legal and regulatory systems the term money laundering has become conflated with other forms of financial crime, and sometimes used more generally to include misuse of the financial system (involving things such as securities, digital currencies, credit cards, and traditional currency), including terrorism financing, tax evasion, and evading of international sanctions. See also Calculation in kind Coin of account Commons-based peer production Digital currency Foreign exchange market Gift economy Intelligent banknote neutralisation system Labour voucher Leprosy colony money Local exchange trading system Money bag Orders of magnitude (currency) Seigniorage Slang terms for money Social capital Social reputation in fiction (category) World currency Counterfeit money References Mishkin, Frederic S. (2007). The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets (Alternate Edition). Boston: Addison Wesley. p. 8. ISBN 0-321-42177-9. What Is Money? By John N. Smithin. Retrieved July-17-09. "money : The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics". The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Retrieved 18 December 2010. Mankiw, N. Gregory (2007). "2". Macroeconomics (6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. pp. 22–32. ISBN 0-7167-6213-7. T.H. Greco. Money: Understanding and Creating Alternatives to Legal Tender, White River Junction, Vt: Chelsea Green Publishing (2001). ISBN 1-890132-37-3 "The Etymology of Money". Thewallstreetpsychologist.com. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 24 February 2015. Boyle, David (2006). The Little Money Book. The Disinformation Company. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-932857-26-9. "History of Money". Zzaponline.com. Retrieved 24 February 2015. Bernstein, Peter, A Primer on Money and Banking, and Gold, Wiley, 2008 edition, pp. 29–39 D'Eprio, Peter & Pinkowish, Mary Desmond (1998). What Are the Seven Wonders of the World? First Anchor Books, p. 192. ISBN 0-385-49062-3 "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20. Mauss, Marcel. The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies. pp. 36–37. "What is Debt? – An Interview with Economic Anthropologist David Graeber". Naked Capitalism. David Graeber: Debt: The First 5000 Years, Melville 2011. Cf. review David Graeber (2001). Toward an anthropological theory of value: the false coin of our own dreams. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-0-312-24045-5. Retrieved 10 February 2011. Kramer, History Begins at Sumer, pp. 52–55. Herodotus. Histories, I, 94 Goldsborough, Reid (2003-10-02). "World's First Coin". rg.ancients.info. Retrieved 2009-04-20. Moshenskyi, Sergii (2008). History of the weksel: Bill of exchange and promissory note. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-4363-0694-2. Marco Polo (1818). The Travels of Marco Polo, a Venetian, in the Thirteenth Century: Being a Description, by that Early Traveller, of Remarkable Places and Things, in the Eastern Parts of the World. pp. 353–355. Retrieved 19 September 2012. Wray, L. Randall (2012). Modern money theory: a primer on macroeconomics for sovereign monetary systems. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 45–50. ISBN 978-0230368897. Milnes, Alfred (1919). The economic foundations of reconstruction. Macdonald and Evans. p. 55. Dwivedi, DN (2005). Macroeconomics: Theory and Policy. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 182. Krugman, Paul & Wells, Robin, Economics, Worth Publishers, New York (2006) Abel, Andrew; Bernanke, Ben (2005). "7". Macroeconomics (5th ed.). Pearson. pp. 266–269. ISBN 0-201-32789-9. "Functions of Money". boundless.com. Desjardins, Jeff (December 15, 2015). "Infographic: The Properties of Money". The Money Project. Retrieved 18 July 2017. "Money creation in the modern economy | Bank of England". www.bankofengland.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-01-14. Mises, Ludwig von. The Theory of Money and Credit, (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, Inc., 1981), trans. H. E. Batson. Ch.3 Part One: The Nature of Money, Chapter 3: The Various Kinds of Money, Section 3: Commodity Money, Credit Money, and Fiat Money, Paragraph 25. randRefinery.com. Retrieved July-18-09. usmiNT.gov. Retrieved July-18-09. Jevons, William Stanley (1875). "XVI: Representative Money". Money and the Mechanism of Exchange. ISBN 1-59605-260-0. Retrieved 2009-06-28. Deardorff, Prof. Alan V. (2008). "Deardorff's Glossary of International Economics". Department of Economics, University of Michigan. Retrieved 2008-07-12. Black, Henry Campbell (1910). A Law Dictionary Containing Definitions Of The Terms And Phrases Of American And English Jurisprudence, Ancient And Modern, p. 494. West Publishing Co. Black’s Law Dictionary defines the word "fiat" to mean "a short order or warrant of a Judge or magistrate directing some act to be done; an authority issuing from some competent source for the doing of some legal act" Tom Bethell (1980-02-04). "Crazy as a Gold Bug". New York. 13 (5). New York Media. p. 34. Retrieved July-18-09 Shredded & Mutilated: Mutilated Currency, Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Retrieved 2007-05-09. Banaji, Jairus (2007). "Islam, the Mediterranean and the Rise of Capitalism". Historical Materialism. Brill Publishers. 15 (1): 47–74. doi:10.1163/156920607X171591. ISSN 1465-4466. OCLC 440360743. Archived from the original on May 23, 2009. Retrieved August 28, 2010. Lopez, Robert Sabatino; Raymond, Irving Woodworth; Constable, Olivia Remie (2001) [1955]. Medieval trade in the Mediterranean world: Illustrative documents. Records of Western civilization.; Records of civilization, sources and studies, no. 52. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12357-4. OCLC 466877309. Archived from the original on March 9, 2012. Labib, Subhi Y. (March 1969). "Capitalism in Medieval Islam". The Journal of Economic History. Wilmington, DE: Economic History Association. 29 (1): 79–86. ISSN 0022-0507. JSTOR 2115499. OCLC 478662641. O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 258. ISBN 0-13-063085-3. The Bank Credit Analysis Handbook: A Guide for Analysts, Bankers and Investors by Jonathan Golin. Publisher: John Wiley & Sons (August 10, 2001). ISBN 0-471-84217-6 ISBN 978-0-471-84217-0 "bankintroductions.com – Economic Definitions". Retrieved 7 October 2014. Federal Reserve Statistic February 17, 2011 The Federal Reserve. 'Monetary Policy and the Economy". (PDF) Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, (2005-07-05). Retrieved 2007-05-15. Milton Friedman; Anna Jacobson Schwartz (1971). Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00354-8. David Laidler (1997). Money and Macroeconomics: The Selected Essays of David Laidler (Economists of the Twentieth Century). Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 1-85898-596-X. Viktor O. Ledenyov; Dimitri O. Ledenyov (2016). Forecast in capital markets. Saarbrucken, Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-3-659-91698-4. Viktor O. Ledenyov; Dimitri O. Ledenyov (2017). Investment in capital markets. Saarbrucken, Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-3-330-05708-1. Viktor O. Ledenyov; Dimitri O. Ledenyov (2018). Business cycles in economics. Dusseldorf, Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-613-8-38864-7. Viktor O. Ledenyov; Dimitri O. Ledenyov (2018). Money investment time. Dusseldorf, Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-613-9-85998-6. "A Case for the World's Oldest Coin:". Retrieved 29 January 2013. "Counterfeiting statistics for several currencies". Itsamoneything.com. Retrieved 2014-09-21. Duhaime, Christine. "What is Money Laundering? Duhaime's Financial Crime and Anti-Money Laundering Law". Retrieved 7 March 2014. Further reading Keen, Steve (February 2015). "What Is Money and How Is It Created?" Uses arguments from Graziani, Augusto (1989), The Theory of the Monetary Circuit, Thames Papers in Political Economy, Spring: pp. 1–26. "Banks create money by issuing a loan to a borrower; they record the loan as an asset, and the money they deposit in the borrower’s account as a liability. This, in one way, is no different to the way the Federal Reserve creates money ... money is simply a third party’s promise to pay which we accept as full payment in exchange for goods. The two main third parties whose promises we accept are the government and the banks ... money ... is not backed by anything physical, and instead relies on trust. Of course that trust can be abused ... we continue to ignore the main game: what the banks do (for good and for ill) that really drives the economy." Forbes Hartman, Mitchell (October 30, 2017). "How Much Money Is There in the World?". I've Always Wondered... (story series). Marketplace. American Public Media. Retrieved October 31, 2017. External links Media related to Money (category) at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Money at Wikiquote The dictionary definition of money at Wiktionary "Money", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Niall Ferguson, Richard J. Evans and Jane Humphries (In Our Time, Mar. 1, 2001) vte Medium of exchange vte Economics Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4019889-3 HDS: 47970 NDL: 00564460 Categories: MoneyMonetary economicsCurrencyEconomic anthropologyEmergence Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Languages অসমীয়া বাংলা हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو 150 more Edit links This page was last edited on 9 July 2018, at 09:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki